How is bilirubin indicated in the general blood test. Blood chemistry. Total protein, albumin, globulins, bilirubin, glucose, urea, uric acid, creatinine, lipoproteins, cholesterol. How to prepare for analysis, the norm, the reasons for the increase or sleep

With it, you can easily determine the total protein in the blood serum, which will be discussed below.

general information

Total protein is the total amount of all protein compounds in blood plasma, which include antibodies, enzymes, hormones, reactive protein, and so on. They all perform great amount various functions, it is for this reason that total protein is so important in making a diagnosis and it is necessary to periodically do biochemistry.

The total protein is designated as tp, as it is of international importance - Total Protein.

The physiological role of the protein component of the blood is enormous:

Support for blood flow.
Support shaped elements blood plasma in a certain state.
Regulation of blood balance.
The implementation of the normal transportation of various substances.
Participation in immune work.
Maintaining blood clotting at the proper level.

A blood test, in which the total protein is higher or lower than normal, indicates the following pathologies:

Hyperprotoinemia is when the protein in the blood test is high.
Hypoproteinemia is the opposite.

A biochemical analysis for total protein is prescribed in the following cases:

kidney pathology;
infectious diseases in acute and chronic stages;
liver disease;
anemia;
extensive burns;
oncology;
infection;
during a comprehensive examination at the first stage;
when prescribed by a doctor for screening in the case of pregnant women;
with violations resulting from malnutrition;
to assess the state of the patient's body as a whole.

In order to carry out the blood test for protein itself, it is necessary to take blood from a vein in the morning and on an empty stomach. This is due to the fact that at other times the concentration of blood components for physiological reasons may change.

The norm and deviations from it

In the results of the analysis, each individual substance has its own designation, for example, total protein TP or OB, but regardless of how the total protein is designated, it is not constant and directly depends on age:

in newborn babies - g / l;
in children up to a year - g / l;
in children under four years old - g / l;
older than this age up to seven years - g / l;
in an adult between the ages of twenty-two and thirty-four - g / l;
up to fifty nine -g / l;
older –g/l.

It is worth paying your own attention to the fact that in each individual laboratory this indicator may differ slightly, it depends on the reagents and equipment. It is for this reason that a specific norm is always given in the results sheet, by comparing with which the patient can independently judge what the level of blood components is at the moment.

In general, a decrease in protein occurs more often, that is, hypoproteinemia, which occurs in the following situations:

Diet or fasting, in which there is a restriction of the intake of protein from food.
Hepatitis like parenchymal.
Inflammation.
Bleeding that is chronic.
Rapid protein breakdown.

intoxication processes.
Various fevers.

When this substance falls below 50 g/l, edema may occur. Low protein levels are common during pregnancy or lactation, and also if a person is engaged in physical activity for a long time.

But hypoproteinemia often occurs with the following diseases and conditions:

burn disease;
diseases of the gastrointestinal tract;
tumors;
surgical interventions;
liver disease;
bleeding in acute and chronic form;
intoxication;
various injuries;
diabetes;
pleurisy;
various hereditary diseases.

If, when taking a blood test for total protein, the result turns out to be increased, then this may occur in the following situations:

infectious diseases.
Myeloma.
Sepsis.
Lupus erythematosus in a chronic form.
Cirrhosis.
Allergic reactions.
chronic hepatitis.
Diabetes.
Diarrhea and vomiting.

Physiological causes of deviation from the norm

A change in the concentration of this substance can also occur due to physiological changes in the body, examples of which are the following:

Pregnancy - in this situation, at the thirty-second week, the protein often goes down.
Newborns.
Bed patients.
During the period of breastfeeding.
Often this condition also occurs when drugs are introduced into the body in the form of solutions that actively dilute the blood.

Often, an increase in protein in the blood occurs as a result of physical labor or if a person abruptly gets up from a prone position. But that's not all - during blood sampling, a strong pull with a tourniquet of the hand or with strong work with a fist. That is why the blood sampling procedure should be carried out by an experienced specialist.

The physiological response of the body in the form of an increase in the total amount of protein often occurs while taking certain medications, for example:

A decrease occurs when taking pyrazinamide, estrogens and allopurinol.

For this reason, the patient must warn the attending physician in advance about taking medications and drugs and their dosage before doing the study, since in some cases he may temporarily stop taking them or prescribe similar ones, but not affecting the total blood serum protein.

Norms of total protein in the blood, interpretation of the results, reasons for the increase or decrease in this indicator

Total blood protein test - part diagnostic study aimed at identifying disorders in the metabolism of polypeptide compounds. The study reveals diseases of various etiologies.

What is total blood protein?

Total blood protein represents the total concentration of all polypeptide fractions (g/dl). There are several hundred peptides in the blood, including direct polypeptides, glycosylated and lipid-bound forms.

Plasma proteins are a heterogeneous group of thousands of individual polypeptides with various functions, including maintenance of oncotic pressure, transport of substances, coagulation, and so on. The total protein content is often divided into two categories: albumin and globulins. Albumin is a protein that accounts for about half of the total protein concentration in the blood. The remaining proteins are called globulins.

The components of total blood protein include:

Albumins are involved in plastic metabolism, are responsible for regeneration, restoration of cellular structures and have a cardiotropic effect. Fibrinogen is a substance that takes part in the hemostatic system of the blood. Stops bleeding, contributing to the formation of calcium-cholesterol deposits. Globulins are the precursors of immunoglobulins and antibodies that play a protective role in the human body.

In a biochemical blood test, albumins and globulins are measured. Fibrinogen is measured when hemophilia and other disorders of the hemostatic system are suspected. In clinical analysis, the content of globulin - hemoglobin is measured. This polypeptide substance is able to carry oxygen to cells and utilize carbon dioxide. Contained in nuclear-free blood cells - erythrocytes.

The concentration of c-reactive protein (CRP) is measured, which is involved in the acute phase of inflammation of a bacterial or viral nature, eosinophilic cationic protein (ECP), an increase in which means that an allergic process is in the body. An increase in the number of ECP threatens anaphylactic shock.

Blood test: total protein and methods for measuring it

The measurement of total protein for clinical purposes is usually performed in n ways.

Refractometry for protein in the blood: the norm and principles of determination

The refractometric method is used to evaluate blood proteins (including fibrinogen). Refractometry measures the refractive index of a sample relative to the refractive index of water. The reading is actually a measurement of total solids (cation exchange) and is a superficial estimate of protein concentration. Lipemia causes false positive result. Moderate to severe hemolysis can blur the refractometer line, making it difficult to read. Bilirubin does not interfere with the study of the biomaterial, as previously thought.

Biuret method

This is a colorimetric method carried out on an automatic chemical analyzer. Detects all proteins and is accurate in the 1-10 g/dl range. However, it is not sensitive enough for low concentrations found in urine or sweat.

Turbidometric methods

Quantification of protein in cerebrospinal fluid, urine, and other low-protein media requires more sensitive methods than the birate method or refractometer. The polypeptides in these fluids can be more accurately measured using precipitation or dye methods. Precipitation methods include trichloroacetic acid and sulfosalicylic acid, while dye binding uses coomassie blue and pyrogallol red molybdate dyes. The procedure for measuring polypeptides in low protein fluids is a turbidometric method based on protein precipitation by benzethonium chloride. Sensitive to only 6 mg/dl of protein in humans.

Total protein in the blood: the norm in adults and children

Each biochemical indicator has its own units of measurement. The total polypeptide in the blood is measured in grams per liter (g/L). Depending on the age category and gender, the normal values of biochemical analysis differ.

Total protein, norm in g / l:

In men and women - 61-81.
In newborns - 45-72.
In a child up to one month - 45-70.
In infants up to one year - 45-71.
In young children under 7 years old - 59-72.
In girls and boys over 8 years old - 57-72.

The rate of protein in the blood during pregnancy increases dramatically in the first trimester. However, the situation is reversed in the latter. This condition occurs due to the increased needs of the body for plastic connections for the baby and mother. Therefore, during pregnancy, it is necessary to constantly monitor the level of polypeptide compounds in the blood.

Indications for a blood test for the presence of specific proteins are:

Oncology (endometrioid cancer, for example).
Kidney diseases.
Amyloidosis.
Liver disease, etc.

In pathological conditions, the concentration of proteins sharply decreases or increases. A decrease in protein levels is extremely rare, and an increase is common.

Causes of increased or decreased total protein in the blood

Dehydration (dehydration) of the body causes an increase in total protein in the blood. Both vaccination and a previous infectious disease can increase various proteins. This condition is associated with increased synthesis of immunoglobulins - protein compounds that should normally be released in the humoral immune response. The indicators are in high positions in multiple myeloma, however, in this case, pathological hyperproteinemia is observed.

A decrease in the number of proteins may mean that the body is not getting enough protein from food. Such a reaction (in the form of hypoproteinemia) occurs in diseases of the gastrointestinal tract.

Only a doctor can make a treatment plan for hyperproteinemia or hypoproteinemia.

How to take a protein test and where?

Biomaterial is taken in the doctor's office or in a specialized laboratory. Blood must be donated on an empty stomach. 12 hours before the delivery of the material, it is necessary to limit food intake. Some foods can raise the level of proteins, fats and carbohydrates in the blood to critical levels. A blood sample will be taken from a vein at the elbow.

The term for deciphering the results of the study is from 1 to 3 working days. After receiving the final results, you should not engage in self-diagnosis. Need to see a doctor for further differential diagnosis.

Deciphering the designations in the blood test

The results of blood tests are used by specialists in all fields of medicine to diagnose, monitor the course of the disease, and change the prescribed treatment if necessary. The changes that occur in the body when various diseases occur are displayed on the value of indicators in the results of blood tests, which makes it possible to identify various diseases human internal organs early stages. Blood tests determine deviations during pregnancy in women, as well as the condition and development of the fetus.

In the results of the analyzes, a number of indicators with numerical values are indicated. There are certain boundaries of the level of norms for these indicators. Based on deviations from these norms, the doctor can draw a conclusion about changes in human health and prescribe the necessary treatment.

English abbreviations are used as designations in the blood test. Knowing these designations and their allowable limits, you can easily read the results of the analyzes. However, based on the results of blood tests alone, without consulting a qualified specialist, you should not make an independent conclusion about the state of health.

We will decipher the letter designations in blood tests, designate the numerical boundaries of the indicators within their norms and indicate possible reasons deviations.

Deciphering the designations in blood tests

Consider the main designations in the general blood test, since this analysis is the most common and objectively shows the changes that occur throughout the human body. Blood is taken from the finger, no special preparation is required for this. In the results of a general blood test, the designations of indicators allow the doctor to observe the overall picture of the state of human health, diagnose changes and deviations from the norm. We list the main designations in the blood test and their meanings:

1. HGB, Hb, Hemoglobin - hemoglobin. Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide to all organs, participates in the regulation of pH, characterizes the concentration of hemoglobin in whole blood. The level of the norm is g / l. A decrease in hemoglobin is associated with anemia, iron or folic acid deficiency. An increased value of the indicator can be a sign of great physical exertion, blood clotting, burns, intestinal obstruction.

2. HCT, hematocrit - hematocrit. Indicates the ratio of erythrocytes and blood plasma, not reflecting the total value of erythrocytes. Normally, it is 42-60%. The indicator is increased at birth defects heart disease, diabetes, vomiting, diarrhea. A decrease in the indicator is observed with anemia, in women - in the second half of pregnancy.

3. RBC - a designation in the general blood test for the number of erythrocytes, red blood cells that have the shape of a disk. Red blood cells transport oxygen to tissues and organs and carry carbon dioxide to the lungs. Normally, in men, this indicator is 4-6 chl, in women - 4-5.5 chl. A decrease in the level of red blood cells can be a sign of anemia, and also happens with large blood loss, iron deficiency, vitamins B9 and B12. The value of the indicator increases with dehydration of the body, the presence of inflammatory processes, with strong physical exertion, smoking, alcoholism.

4. PLT - platelets. Plates of blood that prevent blood loss. Participate in the formation of blood clots in case of damage to blood vessels. The normal value is thousand / mm of blood. A decrease in value indicates increased bleeding.

5. WBC - leukocytes. White blood cells that support human immunity. Normally, their level is 3.5-10 thousand / mm 3. Any deviation of the indicator value from the norm indicates the presence inflammatory diseases in the body.

6. LYM - lymphocytes. They are responsible for the content and production of antibodies and immunity to various viruses and microorganisms. Normally, their content in blood plasma is 30%. The increase may be due to tuberculosis, lymphocytic leukemia and various infectious diseases.

7. ESR - erythrocyte sedimentation rate. This indicator characterizes the content of proteins in the blood plasma. Normal level- no more than an hour. An increase in ESR is a sign of inflammation.

A biochemical analysis is a subspecies of a general blood test and is carried out in cases where deviations from normal values \u200b\u200bare found in the general blood test. The analysis allows you to clarify the diagnosis or adjust the prescribed treatment. In a biochemical blood test, the designations are a letter abbreviation or the general name of the indicator. Consider the decoding of the designations of a biochemical blood test:

1. Total protein. Represents the total amount of proteins in the blood, is involved in blood clotting, transporting various substances to organs and tissues. Normally corresponds to the value of mg / l. Exceeding the norm can talk about infections, arthritis, cancer.

2. Glucose. In a biochemical blood test, it is designated "Glu" or the word "glucose". Normally, it does not exceed 3.30-5.50 mmol / l. An increase in the indicator signals the development of diabetes. In the body, glucose is responsible for carbohydrate metabolism.

3. Urea. Formed during the breakdown of proteins. Normally, it is 2.5-8.3 mmol / l. The value of the indicator increases in diseases of the kidneys, intestinal obstruction, diseases of the urinary system.

4. LDL, HDL indicate in the biochemical blood test the level of cholesterol, which is involved in the metabolism of fats, the production of vitamin D, and affects the functioning of sex hormones. The limits of the norm are 3.5-6.5 mmol / l. This indicator increases with atherosclerosis, cardiovascular diseases, liver diseases.

5. BIL - bilirubin. The pigment is red-yellow in color, formed after the breakdown of hemoglobin. Total bilirubin consists of indirect and direct bilirubin, normally corresponds to the values of 5-20 µmol / l. A strong increase in the indicator indicates a lack of vitamin B12, the development of jaundice, cancer.

6. Creatinine. It is an indicator of the work of the kidneys, takes part in the energy metabolism of tissues. The level of the norm depends on the body weight of a person and is µmol / l. As a rule, an increase in this indicator indicates renal failure.

7. α-amylase, amylase - amylase. Promotes the breakdown and digestion of carbohydrates. The normal value for α-amylase is u/l, for pancreatic amylase it is 0-50 u/l. An increase in the indicator may indicate peritonitis, pancreatitis, diabetes and some other diseases.

8. lipase - lipase. Pancreatic enzyme that breaks down fats. Normally, it does not exceed 190 units / l. When deciphering the designations of a biochemical blood test, an increase in the indicator will indicate the development of diseases of the pancreas.

9. ALT (ALT) - alanine aminotransferase. A special enzyme used to diagnose liver function. ALT appears in the blood if the cells of the liver, heart, kidneys are destroyed. Normally, the indicator should not exceed 41 units / l. in men and 31 units / l. among women.

We have given a decoding of the designations of a biochemical blood test in relation to the most common and standard indicators. Along with these designations, other indicators are found in the blood test for biochemistry: gamma-HT, alkaline phosphatase, LDL (low density lipoproteins), triglycerides, K + (potassium), Na (sodium), Cl (chlorine), C-reactive protein , iron. These values, which deviate from the norm, may also indicate disorders in the human body.

As you can see, knowing the designations in blood tests and the boundaries of normal values, you can independently determine whether the indicator is within the normal range. However, do not forget that only a doctor can do the correct decoding of the analysis.

Blood chemistry. Total protein, albumin, globulins, bilirubin, glucose, urea, uric acid, creatinine, lipoproteins, cholesterol. How to prepare for the analysis, the norm, the reasons for the increase or decrease in indicators.

The site provides background information. Adequate diagnosis and treatment of the disease is possible under the supervision of a conscientious physician.

Total protein - norms, reasons for the increase and decrease, how to get tested

In various pathological conditions, a decrease in protein concentration (hypoproteinemia) occurs more often than an increase (hyperproteinemia).

Hypoproteinemia is detected in the following general pathological processes: parenchymal hepatitis, insufficient intake of protein from food (complete and incomplete starvation), inflammatory processes, chronic bleeding, loss of protein in the urine, increased protein breakdown, malabsorption, intoxication, fever.

A decrease in protein concentration below 50 g/l leads to the appearance of tissue edema.

Hypoproteinemia is a sign of the following diseases:

diseases of the gastrointestinal tract (pancreatitis, enterocolitis)
surgical interventions
tumors of different localization
liver disease (cirrhosis, hepatitis, liver tumors or liver metastases)
poisoning
acute and chronic bleeding
burn disease
glomerulonephritis
injury
thyrotoxicosis
the use of infusion therapy (the intake of large volumes of fluid into the body)
hereditary diseases (Wilson-Konovalov disease)
fever
diabetes
ascites
pleurisy

The development of hyperproteinemia is a rare phenomenon. This phenomenon develops in a number of pathological conditions in which the formation of pathological proteins occurs. This laboratory sign is detected when infectious diseases, Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia, multiple myeloma, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, lymphogranulomatosis, cirrhosis, chronic hepatitis. It is possible to develop relative hyperproteinemia (physiological) with abundant water loss: vomiting, diarrhea, intestinal obstruction, burns, also with diabetes insipidus and nephritis.

Some medications affect the concentration of total protein in the blood. So, corticosteroids, bromsulfalein contribute to the development of hyperproteinemia, and estrogen hormones lead to hypoproteinemia. An increase in the concentration of total protein is also possible with prolonged clamping of the vein with a tourniquet, as well as the transition from the "lying" to the "standing" position.

To determine the concentration of total protein, blood is taken from a vein, in the morning, on an empty stomach. Break between last move food, the time for passing the analysis should be at least 8 hours. Sweet drinks should also be limited. To date, the protein concentration is determined by the biuret or microbiuret (if the concentration is very low) method. This method is universal, easy to use, fairly cheap and fast. There are few errors when using this method, so it is considered reliable and informative. Errors mainly occur when the reaction is incorrectly formulated or dirty dishes are used.

Albumin, types of globulin, norms, reasons for increasing or decreasing indicators

Blood protein is represented by several types, which are called protein fractions. There are two main fractions of total protein - albumins and globulins. Globulins, in turn, are represented by four types - α1, α2, β and γ.

men 1.50‑3.50 g/l

women 1.75‑4.20 g/l

adults 2.20-4.0 g/l

Violations of this ratio of protein fractions is called dysproteinemia. Most often, various types of dysproteinemia accompany liver diseases and infectious diseases.

Let's consider each protein fraction separately. Albumins are a very homogeneous group, half of which is in the vascular bed, and half in the interstitial fluid. Due to the presence of a negative charge and a large surface, albumins are able to carry various substances - hormones, drugs, fatty acids, bilirubin, metal ions, etc. Main physiological function albumin - maintenance of pressure and a reserve of amino acids. Albumins are synthesized in the liver and live for days.

An increase in the concentration of albumin in the blood (hyperalbuminemia) may be associated with the following pathologies:

dehydration, or dehydration (loss of body fluid through vomiting, diarrhea, excessive sweating)
extensive burns

Vitamin A intake in high doses also contributes to the development of hyperalbuminemia. In general, a high concentration of albumin has no significant diagnostic value.

A decrease in albumin concentration (hypoalbuminemia) can be up to 30 g / l, which leads to a decrease in oncotic pressure and the appearance of edema. Hypoalbuminemia occurs when:

various nephritis (glomerulonephritis)
acute liver atrophy, toxic hepatitis, cirrhosis
increased capillary permeability
amyloidosis
burns
injuries
bleeding
congestive heart failure
pathology of the gastrointestinal tract
fasting
pregnancy and lactation
tumors
with malabsorption syndrome
sepsis
thyrotoxicosis
admission oral contraceptives and estrogen hormones

How is the analysis given?

To determine the concentration of albumin, blood is taken from a vein, in the morning, on an empty stomach. In preparation for the test, it is necessary to exclude food intake for 8-12 hours before donating blood and avoid strong physical exertion, including prolonged standing. The above factors can distort the picture, and the result of the analysis will be incorrect. To determine the concentration of albumin, a special reagent is used - bromcresol green. Determination of albumin concentration by this method is accurate, simple and short. Possible errors occur when blood is not properly processed for analysis, dirty dishes are used, or the reaction is incorrectly formulated.

Globulins - types of globulins, norms, causes of increase, decrease

α1-globulins - α1-antitrypsin, α1-acid glycoprotein, norms, causes of increase, decrease

α2-macroglobulin is synthesized in the liver, monocytes and macrophages. Normally, its content in the blood of adults is 1.5-4.2 g / l, and in children it is 2.5 times higher. This protein belongs to the immune system and is cytostatic (stops the division of cancer cells).

A decrease in the concentration of α2-macroglobulin is observed in acute inflammation, rheumatism, polyarthritis and oncological diseases.

An increase in the concentration of α2-macroglobulin is detected in liver cirrhosis, kidney disease, myxedema and diabetes mellitus.

To determine the concentration of α2-macroglobulins, blood from a vein is used, which is taken strictly in the morning, on an empty stomach. Methods for determining these proteins are laborious and rather long in time, and also require high qualification.

β-globulins - transferrin, hemopexin, norm, causes of increase, decrease

Transferrin (siderophilin) is a reddish protein that transfers iron to the depot organs (liver, spleen), and from there to the cells that synthesize hemoglobin. An increase in the amount of this protein is rare, mainly in processes associated with the destruction of red blood cells (hemolytic anemia, malaria, etc.). Instead of determining the concentration of transferrin, the determination of the degree of its saturation with iron is used. Normally, it is saturated with iron only 1/3. A decrease in this value indicates iron deficiency and the risk of developing iron deficiency anemia, and an increase indicates an intensive breakdown of hemoglobin (for example, with hemolytic anemia).

To determine the concentration of β-globulins, blood from a vein is used, which is taken in the morning, on an empty stomach. The blood must be fresh, without signs of hemolysis. Carrying out this sample is a high-tech analysis that requires highly qualified laboratory assistant. The analysis is laborious and rather time consuming.

γ-globulins (immunoglobulins) - the norm, the reasons for the increase and decrease

The γ-globulin fraction includes immunoglobulins.

Determination of the concentration of γ-globulins is carried out in blood from a vein taken in the morning (before 10 am), on an empty stomach. When passing an analysis for the determination of γ-globulins, it is necessary to avoid physical exertion and strong emotional upheavals. To determine the concentration of γ-globulins, various methods are used - immunological, biochemical. Immunological methods are more accurate. In terms of time costs, both biochemical and immunological methods are equivalent. However, immunological should be preferred due to their greater accuracy, sensitivity and specificity.

Glucose - the norm, the reasons for the increase and decrease, how to prepare for blood donation for analysis?

Glucose is a colorless crystalline substance with a sweet taste and is formed in the human body during the breakdown of polysaccharides (starch, glycogen). Glucose is the main and universal source of energy for cells throughout the body. Also, glucose is an antitoxic agent, as a result of which it is used for various poisonings, entering the body through the mouth or intravenously.

With an increase in glucose concentration above 6 mmol / l, they indicate the presence of hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia can be physiological, that is, occurring in healthy people and pathological, that is, detected with various disorders in the human body.

Physiological hyperglycemia includes:

alimentary (after meals, sweet drinks)
neurogenic - under stress

Causes of high blood glucose

Pathological hyperglycemia occurs in the following diseases:

neuroendocrine disorders (for example, obesity, polycystic ovaries, premenstrual syndrome, Itsenko-Cushing's disease, etc.)
diabetes
diseases of the pituitary gland (eg, acromegaly, pituitary dwarfism, etc.)
adrenal tumors (pheochromocytoma)
enhanced thyroid function
infectious hepatitis and cirrhosis of the liver

Decreased blood glucose - causes

In addition to hyperglycemia, hypoglycemia may develop - a decrease in blood glucose levels below 3.3 mmol / l. Hypoglycemia can also be physiological or pathological. Physiological hypoglycemia occurs when:

unbalanced diet, in which a large amount of refined carbohydrates (white flour products, confectionery, potatoes, pasta) and few vegetables, fruits, vitamins
menstruation
in newborns
dehydration
lack of food or eating before bed

Physiological hypoglycemia is eliminated by a simple change in lifestyle, diet, or it goes along with the end of a certain physiological process (menstruation, neonatal period). Pathological hypoglycemia accompanies certain diseases:

overdose of insulin or other sugar-lowering drugs
alcoholism
kidney, liver and heart failure
sepsis
exhaustion
hormonal imbalances (depletion of cortisol, adrenaline, glucagon)
pancreatic tumor - insulinoma
congenital anomalies - hypersecretion of insulin, autoimmune hypoglycemia, etc.

How to pass the analysis?

To determine the concentration of glucose, blood is taken from a finger or vein. The main condition for obtaining the correct analysis is its delivery in the morning and on an empty stomach. In this case, this means that after the evening meal and until the test is taken, one must refrain from any food and drink. That is, do not even drink tea in the morning, especially sweet. Also, on the eve of the test, you should not eat fat - fat, fatty meat, etc. It is necessary to exclude excessive physical exertion and strong emotions. Determination of the concentration of glucose in the blood from the finger, and in the blood from the vein produced by one method. This enzymatic method is accurate, specific, easy to perform and short-lived.

Bilirubin - types, norms, causes of decrease and increase, how to pass the analysis?

In newborns, the level of direct bilirubin can be much higher - 17.1-205.2 µmol / l. An increase in the concentration of bilirubin in the blood is called bilirubinemia.

Bilirubinemia is accompanied by the appearance of yellow coloration of the skin, sclera of the eyes and mucous membranes. Therefore, diseases associated with bilirubinemia are called jaundice. Bilirubinemia may be of hepatic origin (in diseases of the liver and biliary tract) and non-hepatic (with hemolytic anemia). Separately, there is jaundice in newborns. An increase in the concentration of total bilirubin within µmol / l indicates the presence of latent jaundice in humans, and at a concentration of total bilirubin above 27 µmol / l, a characteristic yellow color appears. In newborns, jaundice develops when the concentration of total bilirubin in the blood is higher than kmol / l. There are two types of hepatic jaundice - parenchymal and obstructive. Parenchymal jaundice includes:

hepatitis (viral, toxic)
cirrhosis of the liver
toxic liver damage (poisoning with alcohol, poisons, salts of heavy metals)
tumors or metastases to the liver

With obstructive jaundice, the secretion of bile synthesized in the liver is disrupted. Obstructive jaundice occurs when:

pregnancy (not always)
pancreatic tumor
cholestasis (blockage of the bile duct by stones)

Non-hepatic jaundice refers to jaundice that develops against the background of various hemolytic anemias.

To distinguish what kind of jaundice we are talking about, the ratio of different fractions of bilirubin is used. These data are presented in the table.

The determination of bilirubin is a diagnostic test for jaundice. In addition to jaundice, an increase in the concentration of bilirubin is observed with strong painful sensations. Also, bilirubinemia can develop while taking antibiotics, indomethacin, diazepam and oral contraceptives.

in the fetus and newborn, the mass of red blood cells and, consequently, the concentration of hemoglobin, per fetal weight, is greater than in an adult. Within a few weeks after birth, there is an intense breakdown of "extra" erythrocytes, which is manifested by jaundice
the ability of the newborn's liver to remove bilirubin from the blood, formed as a result of the breakdown of "extra" erythrocytes, is low
hereditary disease - Gilbert's disease
since the intestines of the newborn are sterile, therefore the rate of formation of stercobilinogen and urobilinogen is reduced
premature babies

In newborns, bilirubin is toxic. It binds to brain lipids, which leads to damage to the central nervous system and the formation of bilirubin encephalopathy. Normally, neonatal jaundice disappears at 2-3 weeks of age.

To determine the concentration of bilirubin, blood is taken from a vein, in the morning, on an empty stomach. You should not eat or drink for at least 4-5 hours before the procedure. The determination is carried out by the unified method of Endrashik. This method is easy to use, takes little time, and is accurate.

Urea - the norm, the reasons for the increase, decrease, how to pass the analysis

Urea is a low molecular weight substance that is formed as a result of the breakdown of proteins. The body removes grams of urea per day, and in the blood of a healthy person, the normal concentration of urea is 2.8 - 8.3 mmol / l. Women are characterized by a higher concentration of urea in the blood according to compared to men. On average, blood urea with normal protein metabolism is rarely higher than 6 mmol / l.

A decrease in the concentration of urea below 2 mmol / l indicates that the person has a low-protein diet. Increased content blood urea above 8.3 mmol/l is called uremia. Uremia can be caused by certain physiological conditions. In this case, we are not talking about any serious illness.

unbalanced diet (rich in proteins or low in chlorides)
fluid loss from the body - vomiting, diarrhea, profuse sweating, etc.

In other cases, uremia is called pathological, that is, it occurs as a result of any diseases. Pathological uremia occurs with increased protein breakdown, kidney disease, and pathologies not associated with the kidney. Separately, it should be noted that a number of drugs (for example, sulfonamides, furosemide, dopegyt, lasex, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, etc.) also lead to uremia.

So, uremia develops against the background of the following diseases:

chronic and acute renal failure
glomerulonephritis
pyelonephritis
anuria (lack of urine, the person does not urinate)
stones, tumors in the ureters, urethra
diabetes
peritonitis
burns
gastrointestinal bleeding
intestinal obstruction
poisoning with chloroform, mercury salts, phenol
heart failure
myocardial infarction
dysentery
parenchymal jaundice (hepatitis, cirrhosis)

The highest concentration of urea in the blood is observed in patients with various pathologies of the kidneys. Therefore, the determination of the concentration of urea is used mainly as a diagnostic test for kidney pathology. In patients with renal insufficiency, the severity of the process and the prognosis are assessed by the concentration of urea in the blood. A urea concentration of up to 16 mmol/l corresponds to moderate renal failure, mmol/l - severe renal dysfunction and above 34 mmol/l - a very severe kidney pathology with an unfavorable prognosis.

A decrease in the concentration of urea in the blood is a rare phenomenon. This is mainly observed with increased protein breakdown (intensive physical work), with high protein requirements (pregnancy, breastfeeding), with insufficient intake of protein from food. A relative decrease in the concentration of blood urea is possible - with an increase in the amount of fluid in the body (infusion). These phenomena are considered physiological. A pathological decrease in the concentration of blood urea is detected with some hereditary diseases(for example, celiac disease), as well as with severe liver damage (necrosis, cirrhosis at a late stage, poisoning with salts of heavy metals, phosphorus, arsenic).

The determination of the concentration of urea is carried out in the blood taken from a vein in the morning, on an empty stomach. Before passing the analysis, it is necessary to refrain from eating for 6-8 hours, and also avoid strong physical exertion. Currently, urea is determined by the enzymatic method, which is specific, accurate, quite simple and does not require long time-consuming. Also, some laboratories use the urease method. However, the enzymatic method is preferred.

Creatinine - the norm, the reason for the increase, how to get tested

Creatinine is the end product of protein and amino acid metabolism and is formed in muscle tissue.

General, or clinical, urinalysis is an important laboratory medical research, contributing to a more accurate diagnosis in most diseases. It is prescribed for differential diagnosis of suspected diabetes mellitus, for any disease. genitourinary system, with viral infections, with all disorders endocrine system, to monitor the dynamics during the treatment of diseases, as well as during preventive examinations.

How to collect and pass a general urine test correctly?

A biological fluid called urine is produced in the human body by the kidneys. The blood plasma is filtered by the glomeruli of the renal capillaries, then water and many components are reabsorbed from it by the proximal tubules and the biological fluid is produced by the distal canals of the kidneys.

According to the results of a urine test, one can judge the state of the genitourinary organs and the health of the whole organism, since the compositions of urine and blood are interconnected.

In order for the results of the analysis to be adequate, it is important to assemble it correctly!

A brief instruction on how to collect a general urine test is as follows:

Before you begin to collect the analysis, you should conduct a thorough toilet of the external genitalia.
You need to stock up on a container for urine collection - a clean jar.
During a night's sleep, a certain amount of biological fluid collects in the bladder. It should be used to pass a general clinical analysis of urine.
The night before, you should not eat foods that stain urine, such as beets, for example, and you should not drink alcoholic beverages.
You should not drink diuretics before taking the analysis.
In order for a general urine test to give objective results, it is necessary to collect not only the average, but the entire portion of morning urine.
Collected urine should be kept cool, not allowing it to overheat or freeze.
In order for the analysis indicators to be accurate, it is necessary to deliver the collected urine to the laboratory for research no longer than 2 hours after collection.

Morning urine for general analysis is collected on an empty stomach! Before sampling, you should not eat or drink anything, and you do not need to take medication!

Any medications or food products will affect the biochemical parameters, therefore, the analysis indicators will be unreliable.

Clinical urinalysis is useful information for specialists about the state of systems and organs human body, about the level of hormones, enzymes, the presence of toxic substances in the urine, the composition of metabolic products, salts, water.

The study of urine for general analysis includes its microscopic examination, fixing the chemical and physical parameters of the biological fluid produced by the kidneys.

Typical mistakes that patients make when they want to take a general urine test are as follows:

In the morning, urinate first, and then collect urine for analysis.
Do not pre-wash the genital area.
Take dirty dishes for urine.
Collect less than 50 ml of morning urine.
Before this, drink water, medicines, alcohol, eat urine-staining foods.
Long-term storage of the contents in the container before delivery to the laboratory.
The analysis is not taken in the morning, immediately after waking up, but during the day.
Postponement on the eve of the analysis of sports or emotional overload.
Being in too hot or too cold conditions before urine collection.

All urinalysis indicators - what each indicator means

There are many different indicators in the clinical analysis of urine. All of them can be divided into three main groups:

Indicators of the physical properties of the biological fluid secreted by the kidneys.
The presence of organic matter in the urine.
Urinary sediment.

Physical properties of urine

The physical properties of urine include its color, smell, transparency, density, and acidity.

Urine transparency and color are determined by laboratory assistants by eye, the relative density is measured using a test strip, or with an urometer device.

To determine acidity the urinary environment is also used test in the form of a special strip.

What is the smell of urine - determined by a simple sniffing method.

Each indicator is considered in comparison with the standard of the norm. So, normally, urine should be yellow in color, regardless of the saturation of the color and its shades. It can be amber yellow or light yellow or deep yellow.

The color of urine is influenced by its density. The higher the density, the richer the yellow color of the biological fluid. Urine acquires an atypical color for itself under the influence of certain foods or medicinal substances.

Medicines can change the color of urine to green, brown, red, and even black. In particular, drugs containing iron, as well as amidopyrine and antipyrine, turn the color of urine into shades of pink or brown. And methylene blue introduced into the body in any way - in shades of blue.

Different foods provoke the appearance of different colors of human urine. Rhubarb and bay leaves in large quantities can turn urine brown or green color. Beets and carrots make it brown or red. These changes are not pathological, but are considered normal.

The smell of normal urine is not sharp, although very specific. When the urine container is open in the air, an oxidation process occurs, and ammonia vapors are formed. The smell of urine becomes pungent. Many scented products, or those containing essential oils. Among them are asparagus, radish, garlic and onions. Valerian and horseradish also give a sharp smell to urine. All this corresponds to the norm, but complicates the processing of analyzes.

Transparency without any turbidity is inherent in the fresh urine of a healthy body. The longer the biological renal fluid stands, the more turbidity appears in it. This is due to the content of various salts in the urine and is the norm.

The concentration characteristics of the kidneys are judged by the relative density of urine. This is a very important indicator that can change physiologically in the presence of vomiting or diarrhea, accompanied by dehydration. Reduces the density of urine vegetable and fruit diet, and increases the consumption of meat in large quantities.

Clinical urinalysis for children who have just been born, normally at first has a low relative density.

The normal density of urine also differs depending on the seasons. In winter it is lower, in summer it increases. Higher urine density is normal in men, while it is lower in women and children.

The relative density standard for a healthy person ranges from 1003 to 1028 units.

The acidity of urine is indicated by the letters pH and normally equals seven, that is is neutral. Neutral acidity of urine is characteristic of a mixed nutritious diet, when both meat and vegetable foods, as well as bakery products are present in the food. Normal acidity for children and adults can range from 5-7 units, which corresponds to a slightly acidic environment. Infants who are still breastfed may have either neutral or alkaline urinary environments.

More than seven units of urine acidity increase black bread, alkaline mineral water, soda, saturation of food with vegetables. Exposing the dishes with urine for a long time in the open air also shifts the reaction of the urinary environment towards the alkaline one. The urinary environment is more strongly oxidized from white bread and a large amount of fat in food, from excess in the diet of products with high content protein, from heavy physical exertion and starvation.

Organic matter in the urine

A general urinalysis also involves the detection, using test strips and modern laboratory equipment, of the presence of organic substances in its contents. Automatic analyzers are used as equipment, allowing you to immediately find out in what concentration the following substances are in the biological fluid:

Bilirubin.
Protein.
Ketone bodies.
Glucose.
Bile pigments (acids).
indican.
Urobilinogen.

Strips for carrying out tests of concentration do not show. Thanks to them, you can only find out the presence or absence of organic matter in the urine. With a positive reaction of the test strip to any substance, further testing allows you to determine the percentage of its content.

Of the ingredients listed above, only protein and urobilinogen should be present in normal healthy urine. Moreover, the normal concentration of urobilinogen is within 6-10 µmol per day, and the protein concentration should not exceed 0.03 grams.

The appearance of high protein in the urine can be triggered by bacteria, leukocytes and erythrocytes, as well as sperm. Influence on the increase in the degree of protein concentration is also exerted by strong, on the verge of stress, emotions, physical activity and sudden changes in temperature, at which the human body is either supercooled or overheated.

Urinary sediment - elements of urinary sediment

Urinary sediment is examined when processing urine analysis last. To make it easier to get, the rest of the biological renal fluid is passed through a centrifuge. Then, under a microscope, the resulting contents of the sediment are examined and found out if there are:

Epithelium.
Slime.
Particles of bacterial origin.
Salt crystals.
Leukocytes.
Erythrocytes.
Cylinders.

The epithelium in the urinary sediment may be squamous (from the urethra
channel), renal and transitional (from the kidneys, Bladder and ureters). Normally, the renal epithelium should be absent. And cells of flat and transitional epithelium in a healthy analysis, both in men and women, there are no more than three pieces. If elementary hygiene rules were not followed during the analysis, the number of squamous epithelial cells increases. Identification in the analysis of the renal epithelium indicates kidney disease.

The same applies to slime. Normally, it is absent in the general analysis. If mucus is found in the urine, it is necessary to look for the pathology of the genitourinary organs.

Healthy women and men also do not have bacteria in their urine. The appearance of particles of bacterial origin in the clinical analysis of biological fluid indicates the presence of an inflammatory infectious process in the body.
Salt crystals should normally be in the urine. Their number depends on the diet of a person and on how much clean drinking water he drinks per day.

Salts that precipitate in the normal urinary sediment are urates, oxalates and trippelphosphates.

Leukocytes should also be present in normal urine. In healthy men, they are normal from 0 to 3 in one field of view, in healthy women there are slightly more - from 0 to 5. An increase in the number of leukocytes above normal indicates an ongoing disease in the body.

red blood cells in the analysis of urine of healthy people, on the contrary, should be absent.
The maximum allowable single erythrocytes detected in several fields of view. The appearance of erythrocytes in the urine can be both pathological and physiological. Physiological causes are taking certain medications, standing still for a long time, walking for a long time and excessive physical exertion. With the exclusion of physiological causes, pathological factors are an alarming signal of a disease of internal organs.

cylinders in a normal clinical analysis of urine, only hyaline can be found. Their appearance is influenced by strenuous sports training or hard physical work, dousing cold water, working in hot shops or being a person in heat conditions. All other types of cylinders in healthy urine should not be.

These include cylinders:

Erythrocyte.
Leukocyte.
Epithelial.
Waxy.
Grainy.

All the above data correspond to the general analysis of urine in healthy adults. Clinical urinalysis in children is somewhat different according to indications.

Deciphering the indicators of a general urinalysis - a table of norms for adults and children

In the results of a clinical analysis of urine, specialists put down certain symbols, each of which indicates one of the main indicators. Normative designations are written next to it, then the values \u200b\u200bof this particular analysis, individual for each person, are indicated.

Urine(urine) is a biological fluid. It is produced by the kidneys by filtering blood plasma. Urine is 96% pure water. The remaining 4% are the end products of metabolism in the form of minerals, salts and other substances. They contain valuable information about the state of human health. The reliability of the results depends on the purity of the sample taken for analysis.

Rinse with clean water and dry a transparent glass dish with a lid with a capacity of about 200 ml.
Do not eat foods for dinner that can affect the color of urine: beets, carrots, spicy dishes.
Exclude alcohol.
Do not take medication.
Wash genitals with soap.
Do not drink diuretics.
Fill prepared dishes with urine. The amount of urine for general analysis should be 150-200 ml.
Deliver the sample to the laboratory in 1.5-2 hours.

You need to collect a general urine test in the morning. Do not take a sample in the evening and store it in the refrigerator. This will skew the results.

Clinical analysis of urine examines:

Physical properties;
presence of organic matter.
Indicators of urinary sediment.

Indicators of physical properties are:

Transparency. It is determined by the laboratory assistant by eye. The absence of turbidity in a freshly collected sample indicates a healthy organism. Turbidity will begin to appear after a few hours of storage due to precipitation of salts. This is normal. It only says that urine for analysis should not be stored for a long time.
Colour. It is determined visually and compared with the standard. In a healthy person, the color of urine varies from light yellow to straw yellow. Features of nutrition, as well as drugs, change the color of urine. It can turn brown, red, green and even black. But this is not a pathology and is considered the norm.
Specific gravity urine shows how many salts, urea, and other substances are in a unit of its volume. It characterizes the ability of the kidneys to carry out the filtering function of the biological fluid. It is determined using a urometer. The reciprocal of specific gravity is called density. In the analysis, the density of urine is compared with the density of pure water. Relative density shows how many times urine is heavier than water due to the substances in it. The density of urine is normally 1.012-1.025. Often this indicator is expressed in units without a comma. For example, 1022 units indicate the normal density of the urine of a person who eats meat and drinks little water.
Acidity urine depends on the content of acids and alkalis in it. It can be neutral, acidic or alkaline. It is determined by the value of the pH reaction rate. The reaction of urine is normally in the range of 5-7 units. In laboratories, it is determined using indicator solutions. You can use indicator strips or litmus paper. The deviation of the pH value from normal values indicates the prerequisites for the formation of kidney stones.
Smell fresh portion of the urine of a healthy person is specific, but moderate. It can also be affected by certain foods and medications. The smell changes very quickly when the urine is oxidized in the open air. The resulting ammonia vapors make it sharp. It cannot be considered a pathology. To obtain reliable results, the container with the sample should be kept tightly closed with a lid. When calculating how much urine is needed for analysis, the container should be filled completely to avoid its oxidation.

Detection of the presence (or absence) of organic substances is included in the general analysis of urine. A deviation from the norm is the detection in the sample:

Squirrel;
Bilirubin;
Ketone bodies;
bile pigments;
Indicana.

Urinary sediment in OAM is examined last. It is examined under a microscope in order to detect:

Epithelium;
Slime;
bacteriological particles;
Crystals of various salts;
Leukocytes;
erythrocytes;
cylinders.

The presence of urobilinogen in the amount of 5-10 mg / l is allowed.

Deciphering the analysis of urine involves the knowledge of certain symbols denoting the main indicators. On the forms of laboratories, the symbols are affixed in Latin letters. Next to the numbers indicate the limits of the normal values of the data.

Symbols of indicators and decoding of the general analysis of urine are normally shown in the table

Laboratory specialists put down the actual values obtained during the analysis. The completed form shows the general analysis of the urine of a particular patient.

A complete urinalysis allows you to identify pathologies at an early stage. Research indicators will warn about the presence or development of various pathologies:

BUL. Bilirubin is produced by the liver. It enters the urine through the kidneys in the following diseases:
- Acute viral hepatitis;
- Chronic alcoholism;
- poisoning with poisons;
- Overdose of antibiotics;
- Chronic hepatitis;
- Neoplasms of the liver;
— Cerose.
BLD. Erythrocytes indicate the appearance of traces of blood in the urine. Causes:
- Movement of stones in the kidneys and urinary tract.
- Tumors of the kidneys.
- Uterine bleeding and erosion of the cervix (in women).
- Injuries to the kidneys and urethra during the passage of stones.
- Prostatitis and prostate cancer (in men).
LEU. Leukocytes are observed in the urine in large quantities during inflammatory processes. These white cells can even be seen with the naked eye. They can stick together and precipitate in flakes. Causes:
- Infections in the kidneys and urinary tract.
- Blockage of the ureters.
- Pregnancy.
- Appendicitis.
- Inflammation of the appendages, ovaries and fallopian tubes (in women).
- Taking certain medications.
URO- Urobilinogen is formed in the intestine from bilirubin, absorbed into the blood, and captured by liver cells. It is excreted from the body along with bile. A study on urobilinogen allows you to:
- Detect hepatitis at an early stage.
- Distinguish obstructive jaundice from other similar diseases.
- Monitor the functional state of the liver.
Reduced acidity:

- Diabetes;
- Renal failure;
- Acidosis (insufficient excretion of organic acids from the body);
- Urolithiasis with the formation of phosphate stones.

Increased acidity:

- Diseases of the thyroid gland;
- Increasing the level of potassium;
- Alcolosis (violation of the acid-base balance of the body due to the accumulation of alkaline substances;
- Urolithiasis with the formation of uric acid urate stones.

Attention! With normal acidity, oxalate stones can form.
S.G in the analysis of urine indicates the density (specific gravity). Density shows the filling of a biological fluid with various substances and salts. During the day, it can change depending on the amount of fluid you drink. Steady deviations in the density of the morning sample from normal values indicate some diseases or physiological problems of the body.
high density(hyperstenuria) is due to:

- Insufficient blood circulation;
- blood loss;
- Large fluid loss due to diarrhea, vomiting;
— Intestinal obstruction;
- Toxicosis in pregnant women.

low density(hyposthenuria) is caused by:

- Diabetes insipidus;
— kidney failure chronic or acute;
- Malignant hypertension (extremely high blood pressure).

Ketones are synthesized in the liver during the breakdown of fats and the formation of glucose. Their accumulation in urine is called ketonuria. Associated with the following reasons:

- Prolonged fasting;
- General hypothermia;
- Physical overload:
— Oncological diseases;
- Excessive consumption of protein foods;
- Insufficient consumption of drinking water, especially in hot weather;
- Total anemia (anemia) associated with the breakdown of blood cells;
- Influenza, SARS;
- It is observed in women during pregnancy.
NIT. Nitrites appear in the urine due to the presence of various microorganisms in it. There are no nitrites in normal urine, but there are nitrates. Some disease-causing bacteria secrete enzymes that convert nitrates to nitrites. This indicates the course of infectious processes in the body. Main diseases:
- pyelonephritis;
- Cystitis.
In order for nitrite tests to give objective results, it is very important that the dishes are sterile clean.
GLU. Glucose (sugar) in the urine should normally be absent. Its discovery should be considered as a manifestation of:
– Diabetes mellitus;
- Acute pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas);
- Prolonged fasting;
- Traumatic brain injuries;
- meningitis;
- Encephalitis;
- Intracranial hemorrhages.
COLOR. The color of urine can indicate various diseases. Dark yellow color indicates diseases of the biliary tract. Black is about skin cancer. Blue color - about typhus, cholera. Hyperchromuria is a physiological change in urine color. When the urine is acidified, the color changes to a rich yellow. When a pale straw color appears, they speak of hypochromuria.
Transparency incomplete urine indicates the presence of epithelium, mucus and salts. Salts in the urine elderly woman predetermine which stones are formed in her with urolithiasis. But this is not a prerequisite. For the appearance and growth of kidney stones, special conditions are needed.

A general, or clinical, urinalysis is an important laboratory medical study that contributes to a more accurate diagnosis of most diseases. It is prescribed for differential diagnosis for suspected diabetes mellitus, for any diseases of the genitourinary system, for viral infections, for all disorders of the endocrine system, to monitor the dynamics during the treatment of diseases, as well as for preventive examinations.

According to the results of a urine test, one can judge the state of the genitourinary organs and the health of the whole organism, since the compositions of urine and blood are interconnected.

See also: Physical properties of urine in adults and children - norm and pathology

In order for the results of the analysis to be adequate, it is important to assemble it correctly!

A brief instruction on how to collect a general urine test is as follows:

Before you begin to collect the analysis, you should conduct a thorough toilet of the external genitalia.
You need to stock up on a container for urine collection - a clean jar.
During a night's sleep, a certain amount of biological fluid collects in the bladder. It should be used to pass a general clinical analysis of urine.
The night before, you should not eat foods that stain urine, such as beets, for example, and you should not drink alcoholic beverages.
You should not drink diuretics before taking the analysis.
In order for a general urine test to give objective results, it is necessary to collect not only the average, but the entire portion of morning urine.
Collected urine should be kept cool, not allowing it to overheat or freeze.
In order for the analysis indicators to be accurate, it is necessary to deliver the collected urine to the laboratory for research no longer than 2 hours after collection.

Morning urine for general analysis is collected on an empty stomach! Before sampling, you should not eat or drink anything, and you do not need to take medication!

Any medications or food products will affect the biochemical parameters, therefore, the analysis indicators will be unreliable.

A clinical urinalysis is useful information for specialists about the state of the systems and organs of the human body, about the level of hormones, enzymes, the presence of toxic substances in the urine, the composition of metabolic products, salts, and water.

The study of urine for general analysis includes its microscopic examination, fixing the chemical and physical parameters of the biological fluid produced by the kidneys.

Typical mistakes that patients make when they want to take a general urine test are as follows:

In the morning, urinate first, and then collect urine for analysis.
Do not pre-wash the genital area.
Take dirty dishes for urine.
Collect less than 50 ml of morning urine.
Before this, drink water, medicines, alcohol, eat urine-staining foods.
Long-term storage of the contents in the container before delivery to the laboratory.
The analysis is not taken in the morning, immediately after waking up, but during the day.
Postponement on the eve of the analysis of sports or emotional overload.
Being in too hot or too cold conditions before urine collection.

There are many different indicators in the clinical analysis of urine. All of them can be divided into three main groups:

Indicators of the physical properties of the biological fluid secreted by the kidneys.
The presence of organic matter in the urine.
Urinary sediment.

Physical properties of urine

The physical properties of urine include its color, smell, transparency, density, and acidity.

Urine transparency and color are determined by laboratory assistants by eye, the relative density is measured using a test strip, or with an urometer device.

To determine acidity the urinary environment is also used test in the form of a special strip.

What is the smell of urine- determined by a simple sniffing method.

Different foods provoke the appearance of different colors of human urine. Rhubarb and bay leaf in large quantities can turn urine brown or green. Beets and carrots make it brown or red. These changes are not pathological, but are considered normal.

The smell of normal urine is not sharp, although very specific. When the urine container is open in the air, an oxidation process occurs, and ammonia vapors are formed. The smell of urine becomes pungent. Many scented products, or those containing essential oils, affect the odor change. Among them are asparagus, radish, garlic and onions. Valerian and horseradish also give a sharp smell to urine. All this corresponds to the norm, but complicates the processing of analyzes.

Clinical urinalysis for children who have just been born, normally at first has a low relative density.

The normal density of urine also differs depending on the seasons. In winter it is lower, in summer it increases. Higher urine density is normal in men, while it is lower in women and children.

The relative density standard for a healthy person ranges from 1003 to 1028 units.

The acidity of urine is indicated by the letters pH and normally equals seven, that is, it is neutral. Neutral acidity of urine is characteristic of a mixed nutritious diet, when both meat and vegetable foods, as well as bakery products are present in the food. Normal acidity for children and adults can range from 5-7 units, which corresponds to a slightly acidic environment. Infants who are still breastfed may have either neutral or alkaline urinary environments.

More than seven units of urine acidity increase black bread, alkaline mineral waters, soda, food saturation with vegetables. Exposing the dishes with urine for a long time in the open air also shifts the reaction of the urinary environment towards the alkaline one. The urinary environment is more strongly oxidized from white bread and a large amount of fat in food, from excess in the diet of foods high in protein, from heavy physical exertion and starvation.

Organic matter in the urine

Bilirubin.
Protein.
Ketone bodies.
Glucose.
Bile pigments (acids).
indican.
Urobilinogen.

Urinary sediment - elements of urinary sediment

Epithelium.
Slime.
Particles of bacterial origin.
Salt crystals.
Leukocytes.
Erythrocytes.
Cylinders.

The epithelium in the urinary sediment may be squamous (from the urethra
channel), renal and transitional (from the kidneys, bladder and ureters). Normally, the renal epithelium should be absent. And cells of flat and transitional epithelium in a healthy analysis, both in men and women, there are no more than three pieces. If elementary hygiene rules were not followed during the analysis, the number of squamous epithelial cells increases. Identification in the analysis of the renal epithelium indicates kidney disease.

The same applies to slime. Normally, it is absent in the general analysis. If mucus is found in the urine, it is necessary to look for the pathology of the genitourinary organs.

Salts that precipitate in normal urinary sediment are urates, oxalates and trippelphosphates.

red blood cells in the analysis of urine of healthy people, on the contrary, should be absent. The maximum allowable single erythrocytes detected in several fields of view. The appearance of erythrocytes in the urine can be both pathological and physiological. Physiological causes are taking certain medications, standing still for a long time, walking for a long time and excessive physical exertion. With the exclusion of physiological causes, pathological factors are an alarming signal of a disease of internal organs.

cylinders in a normal clinical analysis of urine, only hyaline can be found. Their appearance is influenced by strenuous sports training or hard physical work, dousing with cold water, working in hot shops, or being a person in hot conditions. All other types of cylinders in healthy urine should not be.

These include cylinders:

Erythrocyte.
Leukocyte.
Epithelial.
Waxy.
Grainy.

All the above data correspond to the general analysis of urine in healthy adults. Clinical urinalysis in children is somewhat different according to indications.

See also: Complete blood count in children and adults - all the norms in the tables.

BIL- means bilirubin, it is not normally present.

BLD- symbol of erythrocytes. They also will not be with normal urine, but if a woman takes a urine test during menstruation, particles of blood secretions give rise to red blood cells.

LEU are leukocytes. If such cells are more than normal, then leukocytouria is observed. With an increase in leukocytes more than 60, we can talk about pyuria. Any inflammatory process occurring in the body necessarily gives a shift in the number of leukocytes in the urine in a big way.

URO stands for urobilinogen.

PRO is the name for a protein.

pH- conditional symbol of acidity.

S.G is the specific gravity of urine, or density.

KET- designation of ketone bodies. Every day in a healthy person, from 20 to 50 mg of ketone bodies are excreted in the urine in the form of acetoacetic acid, acetone, or beta-hydroxybutyric acid. In a single portion taken for analysis, they, as a rule, are not found.

NIT- nitrites, meaning bacteriuria.

GLU is glucose. Normally, the indicator should be absent. The presence of glucose in the urine indicates a suspicion of diabetes mellitus or acute pancreatitis, as well as excessively carbohydrate foods.

COLOR- designation of the color of urine.

Below are the indicators of the clinical urinalysis of the norm in the table:

Seeing the results laboratory research, the patient, of course, wants to figure out: what is there - the norm or not? But, alas, not everyone knows how to read the analysis. Although there is nothing particularly complicated here. Urinalysis - OAM - is the most common, old and routine diagnostic tool. However, despite this, it has not lost its relevance to this day.

The general analysis of this biological fluid includes:

assessment of its physical parameters;
determination of the presence of organic substances;
microscopic examination of the sediment.

Color, transparency, smell of urine. In a healthy person, it is yellow in color of varying intensity. Brown and even almost black urine occurs with hemolytic anemia, malignant tumors, severe alcohol and chemical poisoning. It becomes reddish with injuries, acute inflammations, kidney infarction. Pinkish - if the production of hemoglobin is impaired. Colorless or pale yellow urine occurs in diabetics. Milky color indicates the presence of pus, fats, phosphates in high concentration.

However, pink, red or brown shades of urine can be acquired due to beets, carrots, iron preparations, "5-NOC". A green or light brown color - because of the bay leaf, rhubarb. But these are not pathological, but physiological indicators of color, that is, the norm.

Fresh urine from a healthy person is transparent. Only with time does it become cloudy, as salts and other impurities dissolved in it begin to precipitate. This is also the norm. The higher the concentration of impurities, the more cloudy the urine.

She always has a specific smell, not too sharp. If the urine smells like ammonia, this usually signals inflammation in the kidneys or bladder. She usually gives apples to diabetics. The smell of urine becomes pungent when a person consumes foods or takes drugs rich in odoriferous substances. In this case, there is no pathology.

acidity of the urine. If the diet is varied and balanced, then the urine reaction is either neutral (7.0) or slightly acidic (less than 7.0). It acquires a pronounced acid reaction with fever caused by high temperature, bladder stones, and kidney diseases. A significant alkaline reaction appears with vomiting, diarrhea, acute inflammatory processes, urinary tract infections, and the decay of cancerous tumors.

Relative density. This important parameter - sg in Latin transcription - characterizes the concentration function of the kidneys. It is defined as the specific gravity of a liquid and is normally 1003-1028 units. Its fluctuations for physiological reasons are allowed within 1001-1040 units. In men, the specific gravity of urine is higher than in women and children.

In pathologies, its stable deviations are observed. So with severe edema, diarrhea, acute glomerulonephritis, diabetes, hyperstenuria is noted when the specific gravity exceeds 1030 units.

The indicator of low relative density - 1007-10015 units - indicates hypostenuria, which can be caused by starvation, diabetes insipidus, nephritis. And if the specific gravity is below 1010 units, then there is isostenuria, which is characteristic of very severe kidney damage, including neurosclerosis.

You can learn more about all the main indicators of urine and their decoding in this table.

Its Latin designation in analysis is glu (glucose). The most desired result of a study on sugar is an indicator of its absence: glu negative or glu neg. But, if it is detected, doctors ascertain glucosuria. Most often this is the lot of diabetics.

However, it can be not only pancreatic, but also renal, hepatic, if these organs are affected. Symptomatic glucosuria is observed in injuries and diseases of the brain, stroke, adrenal tumors, hyperthyroidism, etc.

In the analysis, it appears under the designation pro, the decoding of which is simple: protein, that is, protein. Its concentration of more than 0.03 g is called proteinuria. If the daily loss of protein is up to 1 g, then this is moderate proteinuria, from 1 g to 3 g - medium, and more than 3 g - pronounced.

A special indicator for diabetics is MAU. For them, endocrinologists and nephrologists have identified a “border zone”: microalbuminuria or MAU. Microalbumins are the smallest instances of proteins that enter the urine first. Therefore, the MAU index is the earliest marker of renal disorders in diabetes mellitus. The daily norm of such mini-proteins is up to 3.0-4.25 mmol.

MAU is a very important parameter by which one can judge the reversibility of kidney damage. After all, diabetic nephropathy is one of the main causes of disability and mortality in diabetes. The insidiousness of this severe complication is that it develops slowly, imperceptibly and does not cause painful symptoms.

Urine control allows you to detect the level of MAU in time and prescribe appropriate therapy to restore the kidneys.

The method for determining MAU is the most effective, since it is very difficult to measure the concentration of albumin by other laboratory methods.

Bilirubin, bile acids, indic. The norm is when the analysis says: bil neg (bilirubin negative), that is, there is no bilirubin. Its presence signals pathologies of the liver or gallbladder. If the concentration of bilirubin in the blood exceeds 17-34 mmol / l, then bile acids appear in the urine. Usually this is also a consequence of pathologies of the liver and gallbladder.

Urobilinogen, ketone bodies. A positive ubg indicates the presence of urobilinogen. It can signal diseases of the liver or blood, myocardial infarction, infections, enterocolitis, gallstones, volvulus, and other pathologies. The daily concentration of ubg is above 10 µmol.

The presence in the urine of ketone bodies - ket, containing acetone and its derivatives, is the result of prolonged anesthesia, starvation, diabetes mellitus, thyrotoxicosis, stroke, poisoning carbon monoxide or lead, an overdose of certain drugs.

What does the asc indicator indicate? It indicates how much ascorbic acid is excreted in the urine. The norm for a healthy body is about 30 mg per day. It may be necessary to detect the level of asc in infants on artificial feeding, cancer patients, smokers, alcoholics, burns, depression, suspected beriberi, scurvy, kidney stones, infectious diseases.

In addition, before testing for glucose, hemoglobin, bilirubin or nitrite, it is advisable to determine the concentration of asc. After all, if it exceeds 0.3 mmol / l, a general urine test may give inaccurate results.

Leukocytes, erythrocytes. The number of leukocytes - leu - in the urinary sediment in healthy people should not exceed 0-3 for men and 0-5 for women. Deviation from the norm is a clear sign of inflammatory processes, primarily in the genitourinary system.

These inflammations and malignant tumors lead to the appearance of erythrocytes in the urine - bld. Their number allows us to judge how the disease develops and how effective the treatment is. Women in the first time after childbirth have a high level of red blood cells, but this is considered normal.

Cylinders, epithelial cells, creatinine. In the urinary sediment, there should always be no casts of any kind, except for hyaline casts. The presence of other varieties is usually associated with kidney damage, hypertension, viral infections, thrombosis, chemical poisoning, taking a number of antibiotics.

The presence of 3 epithelial cells - vtc - the maximum allowable number. An increased content of squamous cells is observed with urethritis; transitional - with pyelitis, pyelonephritis, cystitis; renal - with severe kidney damage. A high vtc most often indicates severe nephritis or nephrosis.

The norm of creatinine - cre - is 0.64-1.6 g / l for men and 0.48-1.44 g / l for women. Its reduced content in the urine and at the same time a high level in the blood are characteristic of kidney pathologies. Creatine testing is required for endocrine diseases, muscular dystrophy, pregnancy.

Minerals, mucus, bacteria, flakes. Salt in small quantities is a variant of the norm. But if these are crystals or salts of uric acid uro, then when they are detected, one can assume the development of gout, glomerulonephritis, congestive kidney or leukemia. Oxalates are often detected in pyelonephritis, diabetes, epilepsy, phosphates in cystitis, bladder stones.

Mucus in the urine should not be. It usually appears when the organs of the urogenital area are chronically ill. These are stones in the bladder, and cystitis, and urethritis, and prostate adenoma.

Bacteria - nit (nitrites) - are fixed in the sediment if they develop in the urinary organs acute infections. In this case, flakes may also be detected. This is basically also nit - dead bacteria, as well as dead epithelial cells.

As we can see, the general analysis of urine, the decoding of the substances contained in it, is very informative. Of course, only its results, even the most accurate ones, do not yet allow us to establish a specific disease. But together with the data of other types of research, taking into account clinical symptoms patient, urinalysis and today an important diagnostic tool.

Urinalysis - today is a standard laboratory test in the diagnosis of almost any disease. This analysis gives the doctor a lot of useful information for diagnosing diseases. After all, most of the known toxic substances of the blood are excreted with urine, salts, organic substances and cellular elements are dissolved in it. Thanks to the study of the concentration of these elements, it becomes possible to diagnose the condition of the kidneys, the cardiovascular system, immune system. In this article, we will try to explain to you the normal values of all indicators of a general urine test in an accessible way and briefly report on the possible causes of violations in these indicators.

An automatic (online) interpretation of the general urine test is available for your use.

urine color

The color of urine can be influenced by consumed foods, medicines, liquids. But also the dark color of urine can indicate liver diseases (

hepatitis cholelithiasis

) or blood (

hemolytic anemia

von Willebrand disease).

Reasons for changing the color of urine

Dark urine (color of strong black tea)	Liver diseases (hepatitis, cirrhosis, liver failure, cholelithiasis), massive destruction of red blood cells (after blood transfusion, a number of infections, malaria).
Dark yellow color	Dehydration of the body against the background of vomiting, diarrhea, decreased fluid intake, heart failure.
Pale or colorless urine	Diabetes mellitus, diabetes insipidus, heavy drinking, kidney pathology (impaired concentration function of the kidneys).
Reddish urine color	Eating pigmented fruits and vegetables (beets, carrots, blueberries, grapes).
Red urine	A deep red color may indicate the presence of blood in the urine. This symptom can be observed with: urolithiasis, bladder cancer, kidney infarction, pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis.
Color of meat slops	Turbid urine, with a suspension of brown-gray turbidity. Possible causes: acute glomerulonephritis, chronic glomerulonephritis, kidney stones, kidney infarction, tuberculosis of the kidneys and urinary tract, accelerated destruction of red blood cells, the use of drugs (streptocid, sulfonal, antipyrine, pyramidon, trional).
Red-brown color	The use of drugs: metronidazole, sulfonamide drugs, preparations from bearberry.
Black color	It can be observed in diseases such as: Machiafava Michelli's disease, Alkaptonuria, Melanoma

Urine clarity

The rate of transparency of urine	urine is clear
Normally, urine should be clear for several hours after filling the container. A slight turbidity is possible due to the presence of a moderate amount of epithelial cells or mucus in it.
Causes of cloudy urine The presence of red blood cells in it (urolithiasis, pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis, bladder cancer, prostatitis) The presence of leukocytes (pyelonephritis, cystitis) High levels of bacteria in the urine (pyelonephritis, cystitis) The presence of protein in the urine (pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis, amyloidosis) A large amount of epithelium in the urine (pyelonephritis) Precipitation of salts (urates, phosphates, oxalates)

Specific Gravity of Urine

The relative density of urine depends on the concentration of substances dissolved in it. The more concentrated urine is excreted from the body, the greater the density it has. The density of urine is determined by both the salts dissolved in it and organic substances (protein, sugars, bilirubin), as well as the density of urine is increased by cells that may be present in it during pathology (bacteria, leukocytes, erythrocytes). Reasons for increased urine density (>1030 g/l)

Diabetes
Glomerulonephritis, nephrotic syndrome
The use of high doses of drugs excreted in the urine (antibiotics, diuretics)
Low fluid intake
Profuse fluid loss (vomiting, diarrhea, profuse sweating)
Toxicosis of pregnant women
Infectious process in the kidneys and urinary tract (pyelonephritis, cystitis)

Causes of decreased urine density (less than 1010 g/l)

diabetes insipidus
kidney failure
The use of certain types of diuretics
Plentiful drink

In the case of detecting increased or decreased urine density, the doctor may prescribe another analysis to make a diagnosis - the Zimnitsky test. This analysis allows you to study the work of the kidneys in more detail and make an accurate diagnosis.

Urine acidity

Urine acidity rate	Urine pH in the range of more than 4 and less than 7
The acidity of urine is the most variable indicator. Even during the day, this figure can vary significantly. The reason for this variability is that the kidneys are involved in maintaining the acidity of the blood and remove excess hydrogen ions from the blood through the process of filtering.
Causes of Decreased Urine Acidity (pH > 7) Violations of the acid-base balance of the blood (respiratory or metabolic alkalosis) Chronic renal failure Renal tubular acidosis Increasing the level of potassium in the blood Increased levels of parathyroid hormones (parathyroid hormone) A plant-based diet Prolonged vomiting Certain types of urinary tract infections (ureaplasmosis) Medication use - nicotinamide, adrenaline Cancer of the kidneys, bladder	Causes of increased acidity of urine (pH Violations of the acid-base balance of the blood (respiratory or metabolic acidosis) Decreased blood potassium levels Dehydration (other than the cause of vomiting) Starvation Diabetes Heat The use of drugs: aspirin, methionine, diacarb Diet rich in meat

Protein in the urine

The rate of protein in the urine

protein concentration in urine should not exceed 0.033 g/l

Causes of protein in urine
The appearance of protein is not always associated with kidney damage. Protein in the urine (albuminuria) can occur with inflammation in the ureters, bladder, and urethra. Sometimes protein in the urine appears in healthy people after strong physical exertion, long walking, cold showers, with profuse sweating.

Also, protein in the urine is determined in physically poorly developed children 7-16 years old and pregnant women.

Albuminuria of non-renal origin:

allergic reactions,
leukemia,
epilepsy,
heart failure.

All of the above is functional albuminuria.

Renal albuminuria:

It always indicates kidney disease.
Albuminuria 3-5% is characteristic of acute glomerulonephritis,
0.5-1% - for chronic pyelonephritis and glomerulonephritis.
With nephrosis (syphilis, nephropathy of pregnancy), the amount of protein in the urine reaches high numbers (more than 3%).

Therefore, the determination of protein in the urine is a very important diagnostic test.

Glucose (sugar) in urine

Normal glucose in urine	Normally, there is no glucose in the urine, but its presence in a concentration of not more than 0.8 mmol / l is allowed.
If sugar is found in the urine, diabetes mellitus or kidney problems may be a possible cause. In this case, it will be necessary to additional research. In the event that diabetes mellitus was the cause of blood sugar, then the concentration of blood glucose reaches an unacceptable 10.0 mmol / l. And this should serve as a reason for urgently seeking help from an endocrinologist.
Causes of sugar in urine nephrotic syndrome Diabetes Acute pancreatitis Renal diabetes Cushing's syndrome Pheochromocytoma Pregnancy Excessive intake of sweets

Ketone bodies in urine

Norm of ketone bodies	ketone bodies are not detected
Ketone bodies are acetone, acetoacetic acid, and hydroxybutyric acid. The reason for the presence of ketone bodies in the urine is a violation of metabolic processes in the body. This condition can be observed in pathologies of various systems.
Causes of ketone bodies in urine Diabetes Alcohol intoxication Acute pancreatitis Acetemic vomiting in children Prolonged fasting The predominance of protein and fatty foods in the diet After injuries affecting the central nervous system Increased levels of thyroid hormones (thyrotoxicosis) Itsenko Cushing's disease

bilirubin in urine
Urobilinogen in urine

The norm of urobilinogen in the urine	Normally, urobilinogen is not detected in the urine.
Urobilinogen is an organic substance that is formed in the intestinal lumen from bilirubin excreted in bile. Partially, urobilinogen returns to the intestinal bloodstream. With the blood flow, urobilinogen enters the liver, where it is re-excreted with bile. However, in some cases, the liver is not able to bind all the incoming urobilinogen and part of it enters the general circulation. This urobilinogen is excreted by the kidneys in the urine.
Causes of urobilinogen in urine Massive destruction of red blood cells (hemolytic anemia, blood transfusion, various infections, sepsis, use of certain drugs) Inflammation of the intestines (enterocolitis, colitis, ileitis) Liver failure (as a result of hepatitis, cirrhosis of the liver)

hemoglobin in urine

Normal hemoglobin in urine

Normally, there is no hemoglobin in the urine.

Hemoglobin is a protein that is involved in the transport of oxygen. Hemoglobin is normally contained within the erythrocyte. With massive destruction of red blood cells, a large amount of hemoglobin can be released into the bloodstream, which the liver and spleen do not have time to break down. In this case, free hemoglobin is partially excreted by the kidneys in the urine. In some cases, when squeezing muscle tissue, myocardial infarction, a large amount of myoglobin, similar in structure to hemoglobin, can be released into the bloodstream. Myoglobin is also partially excreted by the kidneys from the body as part of the blood.

Reasons for the presence of hemoglobin in the urine

Hemolytic disease
Malaria
Blood transfusion
Extensive damage to muscle tissue (crash syndrome, contusion with massive hematoma)
extensive myocardial infarction
burns
Poisoning with mushrooms, phenol, sulfa drugs

Erythrocytes in the urine appear with traumatic kidney injury (rupture, bruise, tear), with kidney cancer, with acute nephritis (glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis). Also, blood in the urine is possible with urethritis, cystitis, bleeding in the urethra or ureters, kidney stones.

urine sediment

Urine sediment - in the general analysis of urine, sediment is understood as cells, cylinders, salt crystals that are deposited after a short centrifugation.

Read more about what can be revealed in the study of urine sediment in the sections:

Leukocytes in urine
erythrocytes in urine
Cylinders in the urine
epithelium in urine
Salts in the urine
bacteria in urine

The rate of leukocytes in the urine

The reasons for the increase in leukocytes in the urine in some cases by chance or during the diagnosis, any diseases are detected elevated level leukocytes in the urine.

What are the reasons for their appearance in the urine? This laboratory symptom can occur with various diseases of the kidneys, ureters, bladder or urethra, in men, an increase in leukocytes can be caused by prostatitis.

Reasons for the presence of leukocytes in the urine

Kidney diseases: pyelonephritis (chronic or acute), kidney tuberculosis, urolithiasis, kidney cancer.
Ureteral disease: urolithiasis, infectious inflammation of the ureter
Bladder involvement: cystitis, bladder cancer.
Prostate lesion: prostatitis, prostate cancer.
Damage to the urethra: urethritis, urolithiasis.
Infections of the external genital organs or non-compliance with the rules of hygiene. In some cases, the presence of leukocytes in the urine may be due to poor hygiene during urine collection or inflammation of the external genitalia (vulvovaginitis).

What to do if leukocytes are elevated in the urine? In the event that the results of your tests revealed an increase in the number of leukocytes in the urine, you should seek a personal consultation with a urologist for a personal consultation. It may be necessary to conduct additional studies: a complete blood count, ultrasound of the kidneys, a urine test according to Nechiporenko, a three-glass sample.

erythrocytes in urine

4. Long-term use of antibiotics

A significant increase in the diastase index - more than 8000 units indicates acute pancreatitis or an exacerbation of chronic pancreatitis.

The concept of OBK includes the total value of all protein fractions and their subspecies. Knowing the level of total protein, one can judge various changes in the functioning of organs and systems.

In this article, you will learn more about the results of a general blood test for total protein in the blood, about protein norms in men and women.

The meaning and functions of protein in the blood

Total protein regulates the metabolism of amino acids, reflects the concentration of protein molecules in blood plasma. The indicator of protein metabolism characterizes the body's ability to self-heal. Blood plasma contains about 100 different types of proteins. The most famous are compounds of albumins and globulins:

Globulins - regulate the reaction of the immune system to irritation from the outside;
Albumins - monitor the composition, viscosity of blood, its circulation, balance the acid-base balance.

Other functions of protein fractions:

Participate in blood clotting, create obstacles to the formation of blood clots;
Control the transport of bilirubin, cholesterol, minerals to tissues;
Connect with substances medicines, ensure their delivery to the cells of organs;
Monitor the reserve of amino acids;
Participate in suppression inflammatory process;
Regulate blood volume;
Take part in the production of hemoglobin, antibodies, hormones, enzymes.

The OBK indicator is used to determine the pathology in the body. To make a diagnosis, additionally determine protein fractions, as well as non-protein components of the blood.

The norm of total protein in the blood in women and men

The level of OBK characterizes protein metabolism, makes it possible to judge the rationality of nutrition. When the level changes, the percentage of albumin and globulin in the blood is determined.

The OBK indicator is determined by:

With diseases of the liver, kidneys;
In acute and chronic infections of various origins;
For burns;
With oncology;
With impaired metabolism;
With anemia;
With severe poisoning;
With injuries leading to blood loss;
With diseases of the stomach, intestines, malnutrition, exhaustion;
With a comprehensive health examination;

It is also important to know the level of protein fractions in blood plasma before surgical operations, medical procedures, quality control medical measures when taking medications and for further prognosis of the disease.

Table of norms of total protein in the blood in women and men different ages(gram/liter):

Deciphering the designations in the blood test

The results of blood tests are used by specialists in all fields of medicine to diagnose, monitor the course of the disease, and change the prescribed treatment if necessary. The changes that occur in the body when various diseases occur are reflected in the values of indicators in the results of blood tests, which makes it possible to detect various diseases of the internal organs of a person at an early stage. Blood tests determine deviations during pregnancy in women, as well as the condition and development of the fetus.

In the results of the analyzes, a number of indicators with numerical values are indicated. There are certain boundaries of the level of norms for these indicators. Based on deviations from these norms, the doctor can draw a conclusion about changes in human health and prescribe the necessary treatment.

We will decipher the letter designations in blood tests, designate the numerical boundaries of the indicators within their norms and indicate the possible causes of deviations.

Deciphering the designations in blood tests

2. HCT, hematocrit - hematocrit. Indicates the ratio of erythrocytes and blood plasma, not reflecting the total value of erythrocytes. Normally, it is 42-60%. The indicator is increased with congenital heart defects, diabetes, vomiting, diarrhea. A decrease in the indicator is observed with anemia, in women - in the second half of pregnancy.

5. WBC - leukocytes. White blood cells that support human immunity. Normally, their level is 3.5-10 thousand / mm 3. Any deviation of the value of the indicator from the norm indicates the presence of inflammatory diseases in the body.

7. ESR - erythrocyte sedimentation rate. This indicator characterizes the content of proteins in the blood plasma. The normal level is no more than a mm per hour. An increase in ESR is a sign of inflammation.

A biochemical analysis is a subspecies of a general blood test and is carried out in cases where deviations from normal values \u200b\u200bare found in the general blood test. The analysis allows you to clarify the diagnosis or adjust the prescribed treatment. In a biochemical blood test, the designations are a letter abbreviation or the general name of the indicator. Consider the decoding of the designations of a biochemical blood test:

Blood chemistry

General information

A biochemical blood test is one of the most popular research methods for patients and doctors. If you clearly know what a biochemical blood test from a vein shows, you can identify a number of serious ailments in the early stages, including viral hepatitis, diabetes mellitus, malignant neoplasms. Early detection of such pathologies makes it possible to apply proper treatment and heal them.

The nurse collects blood for examination for several minutes. Each patient must understand that this procedure does not cause discomfort. The answer to the question of where blood is taken from for analysis is unequivocal: from a vein.

Speaking about what a biochemical blood test is and what is included in it, it should be noted that the results obtained are actually a kind of reflection of the general condition of the body. However, trying to figure it out on my own normal analysis or there are certain deviations from the normal value, it is important to understand what is LDL, what is CPK (CPK - creatine phosphokinase), to understand what is urea (urea), etc.

General information about the analysis of blood biochemistry - what it is and what you can learn by doing it, you will receive from this article. How much it costs to conduct such an analysis, how many days it takes to get the results, you should find out directly in the laboratory where the patient intends to conduct this study.

How is the preparation for biochemical analysis?

Before you donate blood, you need to carefully prepare for this process. For those who are interested in how to properly pass the analysis, you need to take into account a few fairly simple requirements:

you need to donate blood only on an empty stomach;
in the evening, on the eve of the upcoming analysis, you can not drink strong coffee, tea, consume fatty foods, alcoholic beverages (it is better not to drink the latter for 2-3 days);
do not smoke for at least an hour before the analysis;
a day before the test, you should not practice any thermal procedures - go to the sauna, bath, and a person should not subject himself to serious physical exertion;
you need to take laboratory tests in the morning, before any medical procedures;
a person who is preparing for analysis, having come to the laboratory, should calm down a little, sit for a few minutes and catch his breath;
the answer to the question of whether it is possible to brush your teeth before taking tests is negative: in order to accurately determine blood sugar, in the morning before the study, you need to ignore this hygiene procedure, and also do not drink tea and coffee;
Do not take antibiotics before taking blood hormonal medications, diuretics, etc.;
two weeks before the study, you need to stop taking drugs that affect blood lipids, in particular, statins;
if you need to take a full analysis again, this must be done at the same time, the laboratory must also be the same.

Deciphering a biochemical blood test

If a clinical blood test was performed, the decoding of the indicators is carried out by a specialist. Also, the interpretation of indicators of a biochemical blood test can be carried out using a special table, which indicates the normal indicators of analyzes in adults and children. If any indicator differs from the norm, it is important to pay attention to this and consult a doctor who can correctly “read” all the results obtained and give his recommendations. If necessary, blood biochemistry is prescribed: an extended profile.

Table for decoding a biochemical blood test in adults

globulins (α1, α2, γ, β)

Thus, a biochemical blood test makes it possible to conduct a detailed analysis to assess the functioning of internal organs. Also, deciphering the results allows you to adequately “read” which vitamins, macro- and microelements, enzymes, hormones the body needs. Blood biochemistry allows you to recognize the presence of metabolic pathologies.

If you correctly decipher the obtained indicators, it is much easier to make any diagnosis. Biochemistry is a more detailed study than the KLA. After all, deciphering the indicators of a general blood test does not allow obtaining such detailed data.

It is very important to conduct such studies during pregnancy. After all, a general analysis during pregnancy does not make it possible to obtain complete information. Therefore, biochemistry in pregnant women is prescribed, as a rule, in the first months and in the third trimester. In the presence of certain pathologies and poor health, this analysis is carried out more often.

In modern laboratories, they are able to conduct a study and decipher the obtained indicators for several hours. The patient is provided with a table in which all the data are indicated. Accordingly, it is even possible to independently track how blood counts are normal in adults and children.

Both the table for deciphering the general blood test in adults and biochemical analyzes are deciphered taking into account the age and gender of the patient. After all, the norm of blood biochemistry, as well as the norm of a clinical blood test, can vary in women and men, in young and elderly patients.

A hemogram is a clinical blood test in adults and children, which allows you to find out the amount of all blood elements, as well as their morphological features, the ratio of leukocytes, hemoglobin content, etc.

Since blood biochemistry is a complex study, it also includes liver tests. Deciphering the analysis allows you to determine whether liver function is normal. Liver parameters are important for diagnosing pathologies of this organ. The following data make it possible to assess the structural and functional state of the liver: ALT, GGTP (GGTP norm in women is slightly lower), alkaline phosphatase enzymes, bilirubin and total protein levels. Liver tests are performed when necessary to establish or confirm the diagnosis.

Cholinesterase is determined to diagnose the severity of intoxication and the state of the liver, as well as its functions.

Blood sugar is determined to assess the functions of the endocrine system. What is the name of the blood test for sugar, you can find out directly in the laboratory. The sugar designation can be found on the results sheet. How is sugar defined? It is denoted by the concept of "glucose" or "GLU" in English.

The CRP rate is important, since a jump in these indicators indicates the development of inflammation. The AST indicator indicates pathological processes associated with tissue destruction.

The MID index in a blood test is determined during a general analysis. The MID level allows you to determine the development of allergies, infectious diseases, anemia, etc. The MID indicator allows you to assess the state of the human immune system.

Lipidogram provides for the determination of indicators of total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, triglycerides. The lipid spectrum is determined in order to identify disorders of lipid metabolism in the body.

The norm of blood electrolytes indicates the normal course of metabolic processes in the body.

Seromucoid is a fraction of blood plasma proteins that includes a group of glycoproteins. Speaking about seromucoid - what it is, it should be noted that if the connective tissue is destroyed, degraded or damaged, seromucoids enter the blood plasma. Therefore, seromucoids are determined to predict the development of tuberculosis.

LDH, LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) is an enzyme involved in the oxidation of glucose and the production of lactic acid.

An analysis for ferritin (a protein complex, the main intracellular depot of iron) is carried out with suspicion of hemochromatosis, chronic inflammatory and infectious diseases, and tumors.

A blood test for ASO is important for diagnosing a variety of complications after a streptococcal infection.

In addition, other indicators are determined, as well as other investigations are carried out (protein electrophoresis, etc.). The norm of a biochemical blood test is displayed in special tables. It displays the norm of a biochemical blood test in women, the table also provides information on normal indicators in men. But still, it is better to ask a specialist who will adequately evaluate the results in the complex and prescribe the appropriate treatment about how to decipher a general blood test and how to read the data of a biochemical analysis.

Decoding of blood biochemistry in children is carried out by a specialist who appointed the study. For this, a table is also used in which the norm for children of all indicators is indicated.

In veterinary medicine, there are also norms for biochemical blood parameters for dogs and cats - the corresponding tables indicate the biochemical composition of animal blood.

What some indicators mean in a blood test is discussed in more detail below.

Total protein of blood serum, fractions of total protein

Protein means a lot in the human body, as it takes part in the creation of new cells, in the transport of substances and the formation of humoral immunity.

The composition of proteins includes 20 basic amino acids, they also contain inorganic substances, vitamins, lipid and carbohydrate residues.

The liquid part of the blood contains approximately 165 proteins, moreover, their structure and role in the body are different. Proteins are divided into three different protein fractions:

Since the production of proteins occurs mainly in the liver, their level indicates its synthetic function.

If the conducted proteinogram indicates that there is a decrease in total protein in the body, this phenomenon is defined as hypoproteinemia. A similar phenomenon occurs in the following cases:

with protein starvation - if a person follows a certain diet, practices vegetarianism;
if there is an increased excretion of protein in the urine - with proteinuria, kidney disease, pregnancy;
if a person loses a lot of blood - with bleeding, heavy periods;
in case of severe burns;
with exudative pleurisy, exudative pericarditis, ascites;
with the development of malignant neoplasms;
if protein formation is impaired - with cirrhosis, hepatitis;
with a decrease in the absorption of substances - with pancreatitis, colitis, enteritis, etc .;
after prolonged use of glucocorticosteroids.

An increased level of protein in the body is hyperproteinemia. There is a difference between absolute and relative hyperproteinemia.

The relative increase in proteins develops in case of loss of the liquid part of the plasma. This happens if you are worried about constant vomiting, with cholera.

An absolute increase in protein is noted if there are inflammatory processes, multiple myeloma.

The concentration of this substance changes by 10% with a change in body position, as well as during physical exertion.

Why do the concentrations of protein fractions change?

Protein fractions - globulins, albumins, fibrinogen.

The standard bioanalysis of blood does not involve the determination of fibrinogen, which reflects the process of blood clotting. Coagulogram - an analysis in which this indicator is determined.

When is the level of protein fractions increased?

if fluid loss occurs during infectious diseases;
with burns.

with purulent inflammation in acute form;
with burns during the recovery period;
nephrotic syndrome in patients with glomerulonephritis.

with viral and bacterial infections;
with systemic connective tissue diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, dermatomyositis, scleroderma);
with allergies;
with burns;
with helminthic invasion.

When is the level of protein fractions lowered?

in newborns due to underdevelopment of liver cells;
with pulmonary edema;
during pregnancy;
with liver diseases;
with bleeding;
in case of accumulation of plasma in the body cavities;
with malignant tumors.

The level of nitrogen metabolism

In the body, not only the construction of cells occurs. They also break down, and nitrogenous bases accumulate at the same time. Their formation occurs in the human liver, they are excreted through the kidneys. Therefore, if the indicators of nitrogen metabolism are increased, then a violation of the functions of the liver or kidneys, as well as excessive breakdown of proteins, is likely. The main indicators of nitrogen metabolism are creatinine, urea. Less commonly, ammonia, creatine, residual nitrogen, uric acid.

Urea

Reasons for the downgrade:

Creatinine

Reasons for the increase:

Uric acid

Reasons for the increase:

leukemia;
gout;
vitamin B-12 deficiency;
acute infectious diseases;
Wakez disease;
liver disease;
severe diabetes mellitus;
pathology of the skin;
carbon monoxide poisoning, barbiturates.

Glucose

Glucose is considered the main indicator of carbohydrate metabolism. It is the main energy product that enters the cell, since the vital activity of the cell depends on oxygen and glucose. After a person has taken food, glucose enters the liver, and there it is utilized in the form of glycogen. These processes are controlled by pancreatic hormones - insulin and glucagon. Due to the lack of glucose in the blood, hypoglycemia develops, its excess indicates that hyperglycemia occurs.

Violation of the concentration of glucose in the blood occurs in the following cases:

hypoglycemia

with prolonged fasting;
in case of impaired absorption of carbohydrates - with colitis, enteritis, etc .;
with hypothyroidism;
with chronic liver pathologies;
with insufficiency of the adrenal cortex in a chronic form;
with hypopituitarism;
in case of an overdose of insulin or hypoglycemic drugs taken orally;
with meningitis, encephalitis, insuloma, meningoencephalitis, sarcoidosis.

hyperglycemia

with diabetes mellitus of the first and second types;
with thyrotoxicosis;
in case of development of a pituitary tumor;
with the development of neoplasms of the adrenal cortex;
with pheochromocytoma;
in people who practice treatment with glucocorticoids;
with epilepsy;
with injuries and tumors of the brain;
with psycho-emotional arousal;
if carbon monoxide poisoning has occurred.

Violation of pigment metabolism in the body

Specific colored proteins are peptides that contain a metal (copper, iron). These are myoglobin, hemoglobin, cytochrome, ceruloplasmin, etc. Bilirubin is the end product of the breakdown of such proteins. When the existence of an erythrocyte in the spleen ends, bilirubin is produced due to biliverdin reductase, which is called indirect or free. This bilirubin is toxic, so it is harmful to the body. However, since it quickly binds to blood albumins, poisoning of the body does not occur.

At the same time, in people who suffer from cirrhosis, hepatitis, there is no connection with glucuronic acid in the body, so the analysis shows a high level of bilirubin. Next, indirect bilirubin binds to glucuronic acid in the liver cells, and it turns into conjugated or direct bilirubin (DBil), which is not toxic. Its high level is noted in Gilbert's syndrome, biliary dyskinesia. If liver tests are performed, transcribing them may show a high level of direct bilirubin if the liver cells are damaged.

Further, together with bile, bilirubin is transported from the hepatic ducts to the gallbladder, then to duodenum where urobilinogen is produced. In turn, it is absorbed into the blood from the small intestine, enters the kidneys. As a result, the urine turns yellow. Another part of this substance in the colon is exposed to bacterial enzymes, turns into stercobilin and stains the feces.

Jaundice: why does it occur?

There are three mechanisms for the development of jaundice in the body:

Too active breakdown of hemoglobin, as well as other pigment proteins. This occurs with hemolytic anemia, snake bites, and also with pathological hyperfunction of the spleen. In this state, the production of bilirubin is very active, so the liver does not have time to process such amounts of bilirubin.
Liver diseases - cirrhosis, tumors, hepatitis. Pigment formation occurs in normal volumes, but the liver cells affected by the disease are not capable of a normal amount of work.
Violations of the outflow of bile. This occurs in people with cholelithiasis, cholecystitis, acute cholangitis, etc. Due to compression of the biliary tract, the flow of bile into the intestine stops, and it accumulates in the liver. As a result, bilirubin is released back into the blood.

For the body, all these conditions are very dangerous, they must be urgently treated.

Total bilirubin in women and men, as well as its fractions, are examined in the following cases:

Lipid metabolism or cholesterol levels

Lipids are very important for the biological life of the cell. They are involved in the construction of the cell wall, in the production of a number of hormones and bile, vitamin D. Fatty acids are a source of energy for tissues and organs.

Fats in the body fall into three categories:

Lipids in the blood are determined in the form of such compounds:

chylomicrons (in their composition mainly triglycerides);
HDL (HDL, high density lipoproteins, "good" cholesterol);
LDL (VLP, low density lipoproteins, "bad" cholesterol);
VLDL (very low density lipoproteins).

The designation of cholesterol is present in the general and biochemical blood tests. When a cholesterol test is performed, the decoding includes all indicators, but the most importance have indicators of total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL, HDL.

When donating blood for biochemistry, it should be remembered that if the patient violated the rules for preparing for analysis, if he ate fatty foods, the readings may be incorrect. Therefore, it makes sense to check cholesterol levels again. In this case, you need to consider how to properly take a blood test for cholesterol. To reduce the rates, the doctor will prescribe the appropriate treatment regimen.

Why is lipid metabolism disturbed and what does it lead to?

Total cholesterol rises if:

Total cholesterol is reduced if:

Triglyceride levels increase if:

alcoholic cirrhosis of the liver;
viral hepatitis;
alcoholism;
biliary cirrhosis of the liver;
cholelithiasis;
pancreatitis, acute and chronic;
renal failure in a chronic form;
hypertension;
IHD, myocardial infarction;
diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism;
thrombosis of cerebral vessels;
pregnancy;
gout;
Down syndrome;
acute intermittent porphyria.

Triglyceride levels decrease if:

hyperfunction of the glands, thyroid and parathyroid;
COPD;
malabsorption of substances;
malnutrition.

at 5.2-6.5 mmol / l, there is a mild increase in cholesterol, but there is already a risk of developing atherosclerosis;
at 6.5-8.0 mmol / l, a moderate increase in cholesterol is recorded, which can be corrected with a diet;
8.0 mmol / l and more - high rates at which treatment is necessary, its scheme to lower cholesterol levels is determined by the doctor.

Depending on how the lipid metabolism indicators change, five degrees of dyslipoproteinemia are determined. This condition is a harbinger of the development of serious diseases (atherosclerosis, diabetes, etc.).

Blood enzymes

Each biochemical laboratory also determines enzymes, special proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body.

Main blood enzymes:

aspartate aminotransferase (AST, AST);
alanine aminotransferase (ALT, ALT);
gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT, LDL);
alkaline phosphatase (AP);
creatine kinase (CK);
alpha amylase.

The listed substances are contained in various organs very few in the blood. Enzymes in the blood are measured in units / l (international units).

Aspartate aminotransferase (ACAT) and alanine aminotransferase

Enzymes responsible for chemical reactions for the transfer of aspartate and alanine. A large amount of ALT and AST is found in the tissues of the heart, liver, and skeletal muscles. If there is an increase in AST and ALT in the blood, this indicates that the cells of the organs are being destroyed. Accordingly, the higher the level of these enzymes is in the human blood, the more cells died, which means that an organ is destroyed. How to lower ALT and AST depends on the diagnosis and doctor's prescription.

Three degrees of increase in enzymes are determined:

1.5-5 times - light;
6-10 times - average;
10 times or more is high.

What diseases lead to an increase in AST and ALT?

myocardial infarction (more ALT is noted);
acute viral hepatitis (more AST is noted);
malignant tumors and liver metastases;
toxic damage to liver cells;
crash syndrome.

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)

This enzyme determines the cleavage of phosphoric acid from chemical compounds, as well as the delivery of phosphorus inside the cells. The bone and hepatic forms of alkaline phosphatase are determined.

The level of the enzyme increases with such diseases:

myeloma;
osteogenic sarcoma;
lymphogranulomatosis;
hepatitis;
bone metastasis;
drug and toxic liver damage;
fracture healing process;
osteomalacia, osteoporosis;
cytomegalovirus infection.

Gammaglutamyl transferase (GGT, glutamyl transpeptidase)

It should be taken into account when discussing GGT that this substance is involved in the metabolic process of fats, transfers triglycerides and cholesterol. The largest amount of this enzyme is found in the kidneys, prostate, liver, pancreas.

If GGT is elevated, the causes are most often related to liver disease. The enzyme gamma-glutamine transferase (GGT) is also elevated in diabetes mellitus. Also, the enzyme gamma-glutamyl transferase is increased in infectious mononucleosis, alcohol intoxication, and in patients with heart failure. More information about GGT - what it is, will be told by a specialist who deciphers the results of the tests. If GGTP is elevated, the causes of this phenomenon can be determined by conducting additional studies.

Creatine kinase (creatine phosphokinase)

It should be taken into account, when evaluating blood CPK, that this is an enzyme, high concentrations of which are observed in skeletal muscles, in the myocardium, a smaller amount of it is in the brain. If there is an increase in the enzyme creatine phosphokinase, the reasons for the increase are associated with certain diseases.

This enzyme is involved in the conversion of creatine, and also ensures the maintenance of energy metabolism in the cell. Three subtypes of QC are defined:

If creatine kinase is elevated in the blood, the reasons for this are usually associated with the destruction of the cells of the organs listed above. If creatine kinase in the blood is elevated, the reasons may be as follows:

MM Creatine Kinase

myositis;
prolonged squeezing syndrome;
myasthenia gravis;
gangrene;
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis;
Guillain-Barré syndrome.

MB Creatine Kinase

acute myocardial infarction;
hypothyroidism;
myocarditis;
long-term use of prednisone.

BB Creatine Kinase

encephalitis;
long-term treatment of schizophrenia.

Alpha amylase

The function of amylase is the breakdown of complex carbohydrates into simple ones. Amylase (diastase) is found in the salivary and pancreas. When tests are deciphered online or by a doctor, attention is paid to both increasing and decreasing this indicator.

Alpha-amylase increases if:

acute pancreatitis;
pancreas cancer;
parotitis;
viral hepatitis;
acute renal failure;
prolonged use of alcohol, as well as glucocorticosteroids, tetracycline.

Alpha-amylase is reduced if:

Blood electrolytes - what is it?

Sodium and potassium are the main electrolytes in human blood. Without them, not a single chemical process can do in the body. Blood ionogram - an analysis during which a complex of microelements in the blood is determined - potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, chlorides, etc.

Potassium

It is very necessary for metabolic and enzymatic processes.

Its main function is to conduct electrical impulses in the heart. Therefore, if the norm of this element in the body is violated, this means that a person may experience impaired myocardial function. Hyperkalemia is a condition in which potassium levels are elevated and hypokalemia is reduced.

If potassium is elevated in the blood, the specialist must find the causes and eliminate them. After all, such a condition can threaten the development of conditions dangerous for the body:

Such conditions are possible if the potassium rate is increased to 7.15 mmol / l or more. Therefore, potassium in women and men must be periodically monitored.

If a bio-blood test gives results of a potassium level of less than 3.05 mmol / l, such parameters are also dangerous for the body. In this condition, the following symptoms are noted:

nausea and vomiting;
labored breathing;
muscle weakness;
heart weakness;
involuntary excretion of urine and feces.

Sodium

It is also important how much sodium is in the body, despite the fact that this element is not directly involved in metabolism. Sodium is present in the extracellular fluid. It maintains osmotic pressure and pH levels.

Sodium is excreted in the urine, and this process is controlled by aldosterone, a hormone of the adrenal cortex.

Hypernatremia, that is, an increased level of sodium, leads to a feeling of thirst, irritability, muscle tremors and twitches, seizures and coma.

Rheumatic tests

Rheumatoid tests are a complex immunochemical blood test, which includes a study to determine the rheumatoid factor, an analysis for circulating immune complexes, and the determination of antibodies to o-streptolysin. Rheumoprobes can be carried out independently, as well as as part of the research that provides for immunochemistry. Rheumoprobes should be performed if there are complaints of pain in the joints.

findings

Thus, a general therapeutic detailed biochemical blood test is a very important study in the diagnostic process. For those who want to conduct a complete extended BH blood test or UAC in a polyclinic or in a laboratory, it is important to consider that a certain set of reagents, analyzers and other devices are used in each laboratory. Consequently, the norms of indicators may differ, which must be taken into account when studying what a clinical blood test or biochemistry results show. Before reading the results, it is important to make sure that the standards are indicated on the form that is issued in the medical institution in order to decipher the test results correctly. The norm of KLA in children is also indicated in the forms, but the doctor should evaluate the results.

Many are interested in: a blood test form 50 - what is it and why take it? This is an analysis to determine the antibodies that are in the body if it is infected with HIV. F50 analysis is done both for suspected HIV and for the purpose of prevention in a healthy person. It is also worth preparing properly for such a study.

A daily urine protein test is a diagnostic laboratory test that determines the presence of protein in urine. It contains 150 components. Its differential composition responds to pathological changes in the body. Therefore, urine tests are included in the diagnostic complex for many diseases. Increased amount protein in the urine is an anomaly, as it should not be excreted.

The phenomenon in which this occurs is called proteinuria. It is dangerous, since the withdrawal of this component negatively affects the state of the body. Muscle fibers, hair, nails, parenchymal organs suffer. The result of protein deficiency is malignant tumors.

Protein molecules are the building blocks that make up the cells of the human body. A lot depends on them: muscles; bones; hair; nails; parenchymal organs, which include the kidneys. The protein, along with the blood, moves through the blood vessels, reaches the kidneys, where there is a filter. At this stage, unnecessary substances go into the urine, and the rest returns to the bloodstream. Protein molecules do not enter the urine due to their size. A daily urine test for protein is prescribed after OAM, if protein is found in the latter. The risk group includes:

pregnant women;
diabetics;
patients with pathologies of the genitourinary system, amyloidosis;
those who have recently had illnesses respiratory tract, the causative agent of which is streptococcus;
patients with a history of systemic connective tissue diseases;
people suffering ischemic disease hearts;
those who systematically take thiazide-type diuretics, aminoglycosides, IFP inhibitors, cisplatins.

A daily urine test for protein is often accompanied by electrophoresis of its residue and a biochemical study. This allows you to identify the cause of the pathology.

Daily urinalysis

This study is considered one of the simplest and fastest. With its help, the daily volume of urine and its quantitative composition are determined. More often, the analysis is used to assess the functioning of the kidneys and the genitourinary system as a whole. Urine is a liquid containing creatinine, potassium, urea, and sodium.

By means of a daily study, the concentration of protein, glucose, metanephrine and oxalates is determined. Each of these components is important. Exceeding the established norms is a consequence negative impact on the body.

Protein norm

Protein is elevated in the urine when an inflammatory process occurs in the kidneys. In the absence of such problems, it is normal, which in an adult is 0.033 g / l, and in a child 0.035 g / l. Pregnant women are no exception. This concentration is not reflected as a result of a general urine test, which is done using test strips.

In healthy people, globulins, albumin, mucoproteins and glycoproteins are found. Proteinuria is characterized by the presence in urine of predominantly serum albumin and globulins in small concentrations.

An increase in the level of protein in the urine also occurs for non-pathological reasons. This is possible if the collection of biological material for analysis is made after extreme physical exertion. The possible maximum increases to 250 mg / day (norm 50-80 mg / day)

Symptoms of protein in the urine

There may be no signs of pathology, despite the fact that protein is present in the urine test. The clinical picture depends on the nature of proteinuria. Albuminuria does not give itself away, it is realistic to determine it only in laboratory conditions. Symptoms of proteinuria include:

bone pain;
fast fatigue;
drowsiness;
loss of orientation in space;
change in the color of urine;
poor appetite;
chills;
gastrointestinal disorders.

Therefore, when visiting the attending physician, it is necessary to inform him about the existing signs.

How to collect urine?

How to collect biological material for the determination of protein in a general urine test? Several rules must be followed:

You need to start the daily collection in the morning. Urine after the first emptying of the bladder is not taken into account, although the time of its release must be recorded.
Before each replenishment of the container, the genitals are cleaned.
The collection of urine ends at the same time that it began.
Urine must be given within 24 hours.
After each selection, the container is closed and placed on the bottom shelf of the refrigerator. Do not allow freezing or overheating. Storage temperature in the range from +5 to +8 degrees Celsius.
At the end of the procedure, the level of collected daily diuresis, the time of collection of the last dose of urine and personal data are noted.
Urine should be delivered to the laboratory within 2 hours after the last urination.

Before collecting biological material, you should consult with your doctor about the method of delivery. The first implies the return of the collected in full, and the second only 100 ml, in the latter case, the liquid is shaken.

Training

The success of laboratory research and obtaining a reliable result depends on this stage. Otherwise, the diagnosis and treatment will be chosen incorrectly and will not bring the desired effect. Therefore, when prescribing an analysis, the attending physician is obliged to instruct the patient.

It is necessary to limit the consumption of certain foods, among them: spicy, fatty and sweet foods; marinades; vegetables and fruits that stain urine, as well as juices from them.
Alcohol, drinks containing preservatives, dyes and flavors should be abandoned.
Reception of some medications it is recommended to stop. These include:

"Tolbutamide";
drugs of radiopaque type, which contain iodine;
para-aminosalicylic acid;
cephalosporins;
"Acetazolamide";
sulfonamides;
bicarbonate of soda;
"Penicillin".

These are medicines that are categorically contraindicated, so their intake will have to be postponed at the time of collecting the daily diathesis and preparing for it.

Before the procedure, it is necessary to observe the necessary hygiene measures, that is, wash the genitals with running water using soap (without additives and fragrances). Ingestion of contaminants or hair from the perineum into the urine is fraught with a false negative result.
Women who have begun critical days should wait for them to end, as the ingress of menstrual flow into the urine will lead to incorrect readings.

Bence Jones protein

When, according to the results of a daily urine test for protein, Bence-Jones protein is detected, the question arises: “What does this mean?”. What is the name of Bence-Jones protein? This component precipitates when exposed to a temperature equal to no more than 50 degrees Celsius. It consists of light chains of monoclonal immunoglobulins. Bence-Jones protein is secreted by plasma cells, has a small molecular weight and circulates along with the blood throughout the body.

The B-system of the immune system suffers from its presence. In 60% of patients with multiple myeloma, an increase in Bence-Jones protein is observed. This is an indication that it is a plasma cell marker; macroglobulinemia; amyloidosis in the first stage; monoclonal gammopathy; lymphocytic leukemia.

Decryption

Only a person who has an idea of the prescribed norms is able to decipher the results of a daily urine test for protein. In a healthy person, 0.08-0.24 g / day is excreted. Deviations are classified into four stages:

30 to 300 mg (microalbuminuria).
300 mg/day to 1 g/day (minor proteinuria).
1 g/day to 3 g/day (moderate proteinuria).
More than 3 g / day (severe proteinuria).

Most often, with kidney damage and other pathologies that can provoke an increase in protein, albumins enter the urine. Therefore, proteinuria of this type is called albuminuria.

Causes of High Protein Levels

What is the reason for the increase in protein compounds? To date, many diseases have been identified that can cause proteinuria. They include:

systemic connective tissue pathologies (lupus);
diabetes type diabetes;
myeloma;
progressive hypertension;
kidney disease;
malignant neoplasms.

Also, a similar effect occurs due to chemotherapeutic procedures; mechanical injuries; burns of varying severity; intoxication of the body; hypothermia.

The penetration of protein into the blood occurs in three ways. The first involves increased blood flow, a similar phenomenon does not require treatment. The second is damage to the basement membrane. An increase in its openings promotes the release of proteins into the tubules and further into the urine. In the third case, the filtration surface is in order, the problem is localized in renal tubules that do not return the protein required to keep the body normal.

Treatment

The necessary treatment is prescribed after a complete diagnosis, that is, when there is no doubt about the diagnosis. The choice of therapeutic actions directly depends on the causes of proteinuria, the stage of the disease, the physical condition of the patient and his individual characteristics. Their possible range is quite wide.

Prevention

Proteinuria negatively affects the human body. Therefore, its appearance should be avoided by healthy people and those who are at risk. The attending physician on this issue advises the following:

Fluid intake must be monitored.
It is necessary to correlate the excreted amount of urine with fluid intake. A large difference between these data is the first sign of serious deviations.
Weight needs to be adjusted. Completeness contributes to the inhibition of the functions of all vital parts of the body, which is a factor in the occurrence of preeclampsia.
You should eat right. This does not require too strict restrictions. It is enough to reduce strong tea, coffee, salty and spicy foods, chocolate in the diet. Drinking alcoholic beverages is prohibited, and smoking must also be abandoned.
Do not interfere with regular exercise. There are special exercises that help relieve the kidneys from the load.
It is better to sleep on your side.
You need to have an active rest: walking in the fresh air, skiing, skating, rollerblading - everything that you like and can do.
Phytotherapy has a good effect. Lingonberries and other natural ingredients will help remove excess water from the body and prevent diseases of the genitourinary system. It is not recommended to prescribe them on your own, even homeopathic remedies have side effects and contraindications. Today, there are drugs such as Fitolizin and Canephron on sale.
Pass regularly medical examination and take the necessary tests, including OAM and a daily urine test for protein.
Following the recommendations of the attending physician will lead to a complete recovery.

Such preventive measures will avoid problems with excess protein in the urine and improve the quality of life of the patient.

general information

The norm and deviations from it

Physiological causes of deviation from the norm

Norms of total protein in the blood, interpretation of the results, reasons for the increase or decrease in this indicator

What is total blood protein?

Blood test: total protein and methods for measuring it

Refractometry for protein in the blood: the norm and principles of determination

Biuret method

Turbidometric methods

Total protein in the blood: the norm in adults and children

Causes of increased or decreased total protein in the blood

How to take a protein test and where?

Deciphering the designations in the blood test

Deciphering the designations in blood tests

Blood chemistry. Total protein, albumin, globulins, bilirubin, glucose, urea, uric acid, creatinine, lipoproteins, cholesterol. How to prepare for the analysis, the norm, the reasons for the increase or decrease in indicators.

Total protein - norms, reasons for the increase and decrease, how to get tested

Albumin, types of globulin, norms, reasons for increasing or decreasing indicators

Globulins - types of globulins, norms, causes of increase, decrease

α1-globulins - α1-antitrypsin, α1-acid glycoprotein, norms, causes of increase, decrease

β-globulins - transferrin, hemopexin, norm, causes of increase, decrease

γ-globulins (immunoglobulins) - the norm, the reasons for the increase and decrease

Glucose - the norm, the reasons for the increase and decrease, how to prepare for blood donation for analysis?

Bilirubin - types, norms, causes of decrease and increase, how to pass the analysis?

Urea - the norm, the reasons for the increase, decrease, how to pass the analysis

Creatinine - the norm, the reason for the increase, how to get tested

How to collect and pass a general urine test correctly?

All urinalysis indicators - what each indicator means

Deciphering the indicators of a general urinalysis - a table of norms for adults and children

The meaning and functions of protein in the blood

The norm of total protein in the blood in women and men

Deciphering the designations in the blood test

Deciphering the designations in blood tests

Blood chemistry

General information

How is the preparation for biochemical analysis?

Deciphering a biochemical blood test

Table for decoding a biochemical blood test in adults

Total protein of blood serum, fractions of total protein

Why do the concentrations of protein fractions change?

The level of nitrogen metabolism

Urea

Creatinine

Uric acid

Glucose

hypoglycemia

hyperglycemia

Violation of pigment metabolism in the body

Jaundice: why does it occur?

Lipid metabolism or cholesterol levels

Why is lipid metabolism disturbed and what does it lead to?

Blood enzymes

Aspartate aminotransferase (ACAT) and alanine aminotransferase

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)

Gammaglutamyl transferase (GGT, glutamyl transpeptidase)

Creatine kinase (creatine phosphokinase)

MM Creatine Kinase

MB Creatine Kinase

BB Creatine Kinase

Alpha amylase

Blood electrolytes - what is it?

Potassium

Sodium

Rheumatic tests

findings

Daily urinalysis

Protein norm

Symptoms of protein in the urine

How to collect urine?

Training

Bence Jones protein

Decryption

Causes of High Protein Levels

Treatment

Prevention

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